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<text>* Return to the Solar System Home Cards (2) via the icon of Saturn in the lower right of each card.* Each planet has a "Planet Home Card" displaying planet information buttons such as: satellites, discovery information, planet facts, etc.* Return to the "Planet's Home Card" using the planet home card button which has the name of the planet being studied.* Return to the "Space Educators Handbook" home card via the Earth icon on the Solar System Home Card or title card. The Earth icon is usually located in the lower right corner of these cards.* References are identified in scroll field narratives as well as in the "Solar System Reference Card" scroll field.* Return to the "Education Home Card" via the school house.</text>
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<text>(Patricia Pohl, "An Open Window: The Hubble Space Telescope," NASA National Space Technology Laboratories, p. 77.) GLOSSARYAperture - Opening.Atmosphere - The fluid substance surrounding any celestial object that has a gravitational field strong enough to prevent the gases from escaping.Atmospheric Gases - A collection of gases held by gravitational forces. These are different for different planets. Surrounding Earth, the main constituents are nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).Aurora Boreali (The northern lights) - Faint radiations seen at high altitudes illuminating the night sky. Solar activity is related to the appearance of this phenomenon.Black Hole - An astronomical phenomenon theorized as a means of describing certain gravitational anomalies in our universe. The gravitational forces in these are considered to be so extreme that no radiation, not even visible light, can escape.Centimeter - A metric measure, 0.01 of a meter. 2.54 centimeters = 1 inch.Electromagnetic radiation - The broad spectrum of radiation including radio waves, x-rays, ultraviolet, infrared, visible light and microwaves all of which travel at the same speed in a vacuum.Globular galaxies - Immense spherical groups of stars. These are among the oldest in our Milky Way.Gravity - An attractive force which is found to exists between any two objects of any mass.Image - The figure or appearance of an object made by reflection or refraction.Ionosphere - Upper levels of the Earth's atmosphere, extending outward from about 70 kilometers and containing free electronically charged particles that reflect radio waves.Irregular galaxies - These are usually smaller than spiral galaxies and present no regular structure.Meteor - A fast moving mass from space traversing the atmosphere.Nebulae - Huge clouds of gas and dust in space.Novae - Stars which suddenly brighten and become visible in an area where none were seen before.Ozone - The gas whose molecules consist of three oxygen atoms combined, 03.Planet - A heavenly body revolving around a sun and shining with reflecting light.Pollution - Generally referring to obnoxious materials in the atmosphere or on the surface of the earth. A pollutant can be any substance that is not wanted in a system.Pulsars - A star that emits radiation in equally spaced pulses.Quasar - Exceedingly remote astronomical object which appears like a blue star but which emits prodigious quantities of energy. The region that emits light is about one light year in diameter and 100 times more luminous than the brighest galaxy.Radio galaxies - These are enormous and emit extremely powerful radio waves.Solar rays - Generally refers to light rays from the sun.Solar winds - A continuous wind of charged particles from the sun, blowing through interplanetary space.Spiral galaxies - A self-contained aggregate of stars, nebulae, gases and dust formed from rapidly rotating gas. These have a bright center with the spiral arms extending outward.Star - A celestial body that shines by its own light.Stratosphere - The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere extending from approximately 16 to 50-55 kilometers above the surface of the earth.Supernovae - Massive stars at least five times the mass of the Sun. These have been known to explode resulting in a gigantic dust cloud or leaving the star's core.Troposphere - The lowest portion of the earth's atmosphere, extending 16 kilometers, sometimes called the weathersphere.</text>
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<text>NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Voyager, the Grandest Tour: The Mission to the Outer Planets," JPL 400-445, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., April 1991.NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn," JPL 400-100, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., December 1980.NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Voyager at Neptune: 1989," JPL 400-353, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., March 1989.NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Voyager at Uranus: 1986," JPL 400-268, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., July 1985.NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.Patrick Moore, "Stars and Planets," Exeter Books, New York, 1987.Bevan M. French and Stephen P. Maran, eds., "A Meeting with the Universe," NASA EP-177, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.Eric Flaum, "The Planets: A Journey Into Space," Crescent Books, New York, 1988.Ian Ridpath, "The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Space," Ian Ridpath, Thomas Y. Crowell, Publishers, New York, 1979.Patrick Moore and Garry Hunt, "The Atlas of the Solar System," Crescent Books, New York, 1990.Bill Yenne, "The Atlas of the Solar System," Brompton Books Corp., Greenwich, 1987.Patricia Pohl, "An Open Window: The Hubble Space Telescope," NASA National Space Technology Laboratories, Building 1200, NSTL, MS 39529.NASA, "The Solar System," ASEP, 1989.David Morrison and Jane Samz, "Voyage to Jupiter," NASA SP-439, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1980.</text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) The CometsThe outermost members of the solar system occasionally pay a visit to the inner planets. As asteroids are the rocky and metallic remnants of the formation of the solar system, comets are the icy debris from that dim beginning and can survive only far from the Sun. Most comet nuclei reside in the Oort Cloud, a loose swarm of objects in a halo beyond the planets and reaching perhaps halfway to the nearest star.Comet nuclei orbit in this frozen abyss until they are gravitationally perturbed into new orbits that carry them close to the Sun. As a nucleus falls inside the orbits of the outer planets, the volatile elements of which it is made gradually warm; by the time the nucleus enters the region of the inner planets, these volatile elements are boiling. The nucleus itself is irregular and only a few miles across, and is made principally of water-ice with methane and ammoniaΓÇömaterials very similar to those composing the moons of the giant planets.As these materials boil off of the nucleus, they form a coma or cloud-like "head" that can measure tens of thousands of kilometers across. The coma grows as the comet gets closer to the Sun. The stream of charged particles coming from the Sun pushes on this cloud, blowing it back like a flag in the wind and giving rise to the comet's "tails." Gases and ions are blown directly back from the nucleus, but dust particles are pushed more slowly. As the nucleus continues in its orbit, the dust particles are left behind in a curved arc.Both the gas and dust tails point away from the Sun; in effect, the comet chases its tails as it recedes from the Sun. The tails can reach 150 million kilometers (93 million miles) in length, but the total amount of material contained in this dramatic display would fit in an ordinary suitcase. Comets,from the Latin cometa, meaning "long-haired," are essentially dramatic light shows.Some comets pass through the solar system only once, but others have their orbits gravitationally modified by a close encounter with one of the giant outer planets. These latter visitors can enter closed elliptical orbits and repeatedly return to the inner solar system.Halley's Comet is the most famous example of a relatively short period comet, returning on an average of once every 76 years and orbiting from beyond Neptune to within Venus' orbit. Confirmed sightings of the comet go back to 240 B.C. This regular visitor to our solar system is named for Sir Edmund Halley, because he plotted the comet's orbit and predicted its return, based on earlier sightings and Newtonian laws of motion. His name became part of astronomical lore when, in 1759, the comet returned on schedule. Unfortunately, Sir Edmund did not live to see it.A comet can be very prominent in the sky if it passes comparatively close to Earth. Unfortunately, on its most recent appearance, Halley's Comet passed no closer than 62.4 million kilometers (38.8 million miles) from our world. The comet was visible to the naked eye, especially for viewers in the southern hemisphere, but it was not spectacular. Comets have been so bright, on rare occasions, that they were visible during daytime. Historically, comet sightings have been interpreted as bad omens and have been artistically rendered as daggers in the sky.The Comet Rendezvous/Asteroid Flyby (CRAF) spacecraft will become the first traveler to fly close to a comet nucleus and remain in proximity to it as they both approach the Sun. CRAF will observe the nucleus as it becomes active in the growing sunlight and begins to have its lighter elements boil off and form a coma and tails. Several spacecraft have flown by comets at high speed; the first was NASA's International Cometary Explorer in 1985. An armada of five spacecraft (two Japanese, two Soviet and the Giotto spacecraft from the European Space Agency) flew by Halley's Comet in 1986.</text>
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<text> (Patrick Moore and Garry Hunt," The Atlas of the Solar System," Crescent Books, New York, 1990, pp. 396-97.) CHARON* Photographs of Pluto revealed under careful study that the shape of Pluto appeared to be somewhat elongated. This was the conclusion of James Christy (1978). He suggested that the shape might be caused by a large satellite near the planet Pluto. * The estimated diameter of the satellite Charon is 1,199 km, which is smaller than the Earth's Moon. * Charon orbits around Pluto every 6.3 days.* Charon is 17,000 km from the surface of Pluto.</text>
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<text>(Patrick Moore and Garry Hunt, "The Atlas of the Solar System," Crescent Books, New York, 1990,p. 396.) PLUTO* Because a slight perturbation remained in the orbits of the known planets in 1846, it was surmised that another planet might exist beyond Neptune.* Percival Lowell made a rough calculation of the likely location of the speculated planet. He used a telescope located in Arizona to search for the unknown planet. But by the time of Lowell's death, in the year 1916, he had not found his Planet "X."* In the year 1929, astronomers at the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona decided to once more initiate Lowell's search for Planet "X." Using an involved approach which considered star-field's, Clyde Tombaugh, an amateur astronomer who used the new telescope at the Lowell Observatory was able to photograph Pluto in the year 1930. The planet Tombaugh found was named Pluto. Pluto became the outermost known planet of the solar system.</text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) PLUTOPluto is the most distant of the planets, yet the eccentricity of its orbit periodically carries it inside Neptune's orbit, where it has been since 1979 and where it will remain until March 1999. Pluto's orbit is also highly inclined, tilted 17 degrees to the orbital plane of the other planets.Discovered in 1930, Pluto appears to be little more than a celestial snowball. The planet's diameter is calculated to be approximately 2,300 kilometers (1,430 miles), only two-thirds the size of our Moon. Ground-based observations indicate that Pluto's surface is covered with methane ice and that there is a thin atmosphere that may freeze and fall to the surface as the planet moves away from the Sun. Observations also show that Pluto's spin axis is tipped by 122 degrees.The planet has one known satellite, Charon, discovered in 1978. Charon's surface composition is different from Pluto's; the moon appears to be covered with water-ice rather than methane ice. Its orbit is gravitationally locked with Pluto, so both bodies always keep the same hemisphere facing each other. Pluto's and Charon's rotational period and Charon's period of revolution are all 6.4 Earth days.Although no spacecraft have ever visited Pluto, NASA is currently exploring the possibility of such a mission.</text>
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<text>(Bevan M. French and Stephen P. Maran, eds., "A Meeting with the Universe," NASA EP-177, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.)*The previous card is an image of Pluto and its moon Charon taken by the U.S. Naval Observatory. * Pluto is a planetary oddball, a strange world that has baffled scientists ever since it was discovered in 1930. It is not the large gas giant that one might expect to find in the outer reaches of the solar system. Instead, it is a small world, much smaller than the Earth, and in fact roughly as large as our Moon. It is probably composed of a mixture of rock and ice. It even has been suggested that Pluto is not a genuine planet, but simply a moon that somehow escaped from Neptune.* Pluto is usually the farthest known planet from the Sun, its mean distance almost 6 billion kilometers (almost 4 billion miles) out. It takes 248 years for Pluto to complete one orbit around the Sun, but the orbit is so elongated that it actually spends about 20 years of this time inside the orbit of Nepture. (In fact, Pluto is inside Neptune's orbit now, and will be until 1999, so that Neptune is temporarily the furthest planet from the Sun.)* Despite Pluto's distance and the extreme difficulty of observing it, our view of the faraway planet has changed greatly in the last few years. As we have looked more carefully, Pluto has become an even smaller and brighter object than we thought it was. * It seems to have a bright layer of frozen methane("marsh gas," chemically CH4) on its surface. Even more surprising, reexamination of old photographs revealed that Pluto is not alone; it has a moon. Pluto now seems to be about 3,000 to 3,500 kilometers (1,900 to 2,200 miles) in diameter. Pluto's moon, Charon, is large by comparison, about 1,200 to 1,500 kilometers (750 to 930 miles) in diameter.* Pluto will hold its secrets for a long time yet. It is simply too far away for our current spacecraft to reach it in a reasonable length of time. It will be many years before any machines or humans see Pluto up close, dimly lit by a Sun so distant that it seems like just a rather bright star in the blackness of space.* The last planet? Tiny, mysterious Pluto is so far from the Sun that it appears only as a tiny speck of light that moves slowly against the background of the fixed stars. So inconspicuous that it was not discovered until 1930, Pluto is not a gas giant planet like all the others in the outer solar system. Instead it is a small, rocky world about the size of Earth's Moon. Recent examinations (1981) of old photographs, combined with new observations, indicate that Pluto itself has a moon.(The following is from "The Solar System," NASA/ASEP, 1989, p. 12.)* Pluto is named for the Greek god of wealth.* Pluto is the ninth planet from the Sun.* Pluto has nothing in common with gas giants.* One day on Pluto equals 6 Earth days, 9 hours, and 18 minutes.* The diameter of Pluto is 2,170 miles. * Pluto's surface gravity is .05 of Earth's gravity* Pluto's surface temperature is -369┬░ F.* The atmosphere on Pluto has not been detected.* Pluto, the smallest known planet, is about the size of Earth's moon.* This planet's orbit takes it inside the orbit of Neptune.* Pluto's one moon, Charon, was discovered in 1978 and is about half the size of Pluto.* By the end of this century, Pluto will be the only planet not visited by a space probe.* Is Pluto really a planet? </text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Voyager at Neptune: 1989," JPL 400-353, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., March 1989, pp. 9,10.) Triton and Nereid* Neptune has two known satellites, Triton and Nereid. Neither travels in the plane of the planet's equator; Triton's orbital plane is at an angle of about 20 degrees to Neptune's equator, while Nereid's is at an angle of about 30 degrees.* Triton completes one rotation on its axis in the same amount of time that it takes to circle Neptune, 5.88 Earth days. Because the rotation rate is synchronized with its orbital period, the same hemisphere always faces Neptune. (Similarly, Earth's Moon is also in synchronous rotation, keeping the same face toward Earth.)* At an average distance of 354,600 kilometers (220,300 miles) from the center of its planet, Triton is nearly as far from Neptune as the Moon is from Earth. Triton is the only large moon in the solar system with a retrograde orbit; that is, it travels in the direction opposite the planet's rotation. Because of its retrograde orbit, Triton is spiraling slowly toward Neptune.* Triton is roughly the size of Earth's Moon. Estimates of Triton's diameter range from 2,200 to 4,000 kilometers (1,400 to 2,500 miles).* If Triton is smallΓÇöperhaps about 2,200 kilometers (1,400 miles) in diameterΓÇöscientists expect to find only a very thin atmosphere. If, on the other hand, Triton is largerΓÇöperhaps about 4,000 kilometers (2,500 miles) in diameterΓÇöthen it is expected to have a lower surface temperature and could have a thicker atmosphere (which otherwise would have escaped to space long ago), and Voyager's cameras may not be able to see the surface.* Because Triton's size is uncertain, the Voyager flight team has prepared primary and alternative designs for some observations. This strategy will allow a critical decision just a few days before the encounter, based on the latest information available: if Triton is large and has a thick atmosphere, observations will be concentrated on the atmosphere; if Triton is smaller and the atmosphere thin, observations instead will be concentrated on the surface. The best Voyager images of Triton are expected to show features smaller than one mile.* Scientists hope that Voyager 2's cameras will be able to see through Triton's atmosphere to the surface, where there is methane frost or ice and solid or liquid nitrogen. Small quantities of methane may also be dissolved in ponds of liquid nitrogen. * On the dark side of Triton, Voyager 2 will look for temperature differences that may indicate the existence of liquid bodies. (Since liquids cool more slowly than fine-grained solids, warmer areas on the dark side might be liquid.)* Triton's seasonal cycle is complex and extreme because of the combined effects of its orbit and its rotation. * Each of Triton's poles spends long periods in darkness, where temperatures are extremely low and most molecules are frozen. * Where the Sun is directly overhead on Triton, the temperature is near the freezing point of liquid nitrogen (63 kelvins or -346┬░F). The southern hemisphere of Triton is now approaching summer, and sunlight currently strikes directly at about 40 degrees south latitude. As this hemisphere warms, some liquids and solids vaporize quickly. However, as Triton rotates, this hemisphere is plunged alternately into darkness and daylight, and this too affects the freezing, melting, and vaporization of the nitrogen and methane.* Voyager 2 is slated to pass through a narrow area behind Triton where both the Sun and Earth will be hidden from view for about 4 minutes. During this time, the ultraviolet spectrometer on board the spacecraft will study the satellite's atmosphere by viewing the Sun shining through Triton's atmosphere, while at the same time the spacecraft's radio beams will probe the atmosphere to determine temperature and pressure levels. Just days before closest approach, navigators will instruct Voyager 2 to fine-tune its flight path to target for this area of Triton's shadow; this adjustment will be based on the best estimates of the location and size of Triton and on the gravitational effects of Neptune on the flight path. Nereid * Nereid, which is between 300 and 1,100 kilometers (190 and 680 miles) in diameter, travels around Neptune in a highly elliptical orbit that ranges from 1,390,000 to 9,635,000 kilometers(860,000 to 5,990,000 miles). Voyager 2's closest flyby distance to Nereid will be about 4,655,000 kilometers (2,890,000 miles). Even at that range, Voyager may discern bright and dark areas on Nereid's surface.</text>
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<text>(NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Voyager at Neptune: 1989," JPL 400-353, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., March 1989.)Neptune was the first planet located through mathematical predictions rather than through systematic observations of the sky.In the years following William Herschel's discovery of Uranus in 1781, astronomers noted that Uranus was not faithfully following its predicted path. Uranus seemed to accelerate in its orbit before 1822 and to slow after that. One possible explanation was that the gravity of an undiscovered planet was affecting the orbit of Uranus.Two young mathematicians, each working independently and with no knowledge of the other, were intrigued by the mystery and set out to solve it.In England, John Couch Adams began work on the problem in 1841 and pursued it sporadically. By the fall of 1845, he felt confident enough in his calculations to present them to the Astronomer Royal, Sir George Airy, at the Greenwich Observatory. It was, perhaps, Adams' youth and the fact that he was an unknown astronomer that caused the older man to give little attention to Adams' work at the time.The next summer, however, French mathematician Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier published his own work on the topic. When Sir George noticed that Le Verrier's work closely matched that of young Adams, he directed Professor James Challis of Cambridge Observatory to begin a search of the heavens for this object. Challis was hindered, however, by the lack of up-to-date star maps of the area to be searched and, without these, it was difficult to quickly discern new bodies from known ones. His only course was to tediously scan and rescan the sky over a period of weeks, watching for planet-like motion. He missed recognizing Neptune several times.In September 1846, Le Verrier, unable to interest French astronomers, sent his calculations to an assistant at the Berlin Observatory, Johann Gottfried Galle. Galle received the letter on September 23 and began a search for the object that night. Galle, too, might have missed the discovery had not a student, Heinrich Louis d'Arrest, provided him with the latest star map of the area. And there, within a degree of Le Verrier's predictions (and only a few degrees from Adams' predictions) was an unidentified disk. When, by the next night, the object had a new, position, the discovery could be claimedΓÇöan eighth planet had been found.An international brouhaha followed,with supporters of Adams contending with those of Le Verrier for recognition of their champion. In keeping with the established practice of naming planets for ancient Roman or Greek gods, however, the new planet was called Neptune after the Roman god of the sea.Seventy-five years earlier or later, the problem would have been mathematically insoluble. At the time of the discovery, Neptune was in the one part of its orbit that allowed solution.The orbit calculated by Adams and Le Verrier is not precisely Neptune's orbit. Differences between the actual and predicted orbits continued to be noted by astronomers. In 1915, American Percival Lowell predicted a ninth planet, based on the differences between calculated and observed orbits of Neptune and other planets. Motivated by Lowell's ideas, V. M. Slipher, the director of Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona, hired astronomer Clyde Tombaugh to begin an exhaustive search for this ninth planet. In 1930, 84 years after Neptune's discovery, Tombaugh discovered the planet Pluto. Pluto is now known to be far too small to have caused the apparent differences between Neptune's predicted and observed orbits, however, and the source of these differences remains unresolved.</text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) NeptuneVoyager 2 completed its 12-year tour of the solar system with an investigation of Neptune and the planet's moons. On August 25, 1989, the spacecraft swept to within 4,850 kilometers (3,010 miles) of Neptune and then flew on to the moon Triton. During the Neptune encounter, it became clear that the planet's atmosphere was more active than Uranus'.Voyager 2 observed the Great Dark Spot, a circular storm the size of Earth, in Neptune's atmosphere. Resembling Jupiter's Great Red Spot, the storm spins counterclockwise and moves westward at almost 1,200 kilometers (745 miles) per hour. Voyager 2 also noted a smaller dark spot and a fast-moving cloud dubbed the "Scooter," as well as high-altitude clouds over the main hydrogen and helium cloud deck. The highest wind speeds of any planet were observed, up to 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles) per hour.Like the other giant planets, Neptune has a gaseous hydrogen and helium upper layer over a liquid interior. The planet's core contains a higher percentage of rock and metal than those of the other gas giants. Neptune's distinctive blue appearance, like Uranus' blue color, is due to atmospheric methane.Neptune's magnetic field is tilted relative to the planet's spin axis and is not centered at the core. This phenomenon is similar to Uranus' magnetic field and suggests that the fields of the two giants are being generated in an area above the cores, where the pressure is so great that liquid hydrogen assumes the electrical properties of a metal. Earth's magnetic field, on the other hand, is produced by its spinning metallic core and is only slightly tilted and offset relative to its center.Voyager 2 also shed light on the mystery of Neptune's rings. Observations from Earth indicated that there were arcs of material in orbit around the giant planet. It was not clear how Neptune could have arcs and how these could be kept from spreading out into even, unclumped rings. Voyager 2 detected these arcs, but they were in fact part of thin, complete rings. A number of small moons could explain the arcs, but such bodies were not spotted.Astronomers had identified the Neptunian moons Triton in 1846 and Nereid in 1949. Voyager 2 found six more. One of the new moons, Proteus, is actually larger than Nereid, but since Proteus orbits close to Neptune, it was lost in the planet's glare for observers on Earth.Triton circles Neptune in a retrograde orbit in under six days. Tidal forces on Triton are causing it to spiral slowly towards the planet. In 10 to 100 million years (a short time in astronomical terms), the moon will be so close that Neptunian gravity will tear it apart, forming a spectacular ring to accompany the planet's modest current rings.Triton's landscape is as strange and unexpected as those of Io and Miranda. The moon has more rock than its counterparts at Saturn and Uranus. Triton's mantle is probably composed of water-ice, but its crust is a thin veneer of nitrogen and methane. The moon shows two dramatically different types of terrain: the so-called "Icantaloupe" terrain and a receding ice cap.Dark streaks appear on the ice cap. These streaks are the fallout from geyser-like volcanic vents that shoot nitrogen gas and dark, fine-grained particles to heights of 2-8 kilometers (1-5 miles). Triton's thin atmosphere, only 1/70,000th as thick as Earth's, has winds that carry the dark particles and deposit them as streaks on the ice capΓÇöthe coldest surface yet discovered in the solar system (-235 degrees Celsius, -391 degrees Fahrenheit). Triton might be more like Pluto than any other object spacecraft have so far visited.</text>
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<text>(Bevan M. French and Stephen P. Maran, eds., "A Meeting with the Universe," NASA EP-177, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.)* Cloud patterns were detected in the atmosphere of Neptune by ground-based observations in 1978. Neptune Neptune is even further out, 4.5 billion kilometers (2.8 billion miles) from the Sun. Through the telescope it is a green, featureless world, about the size of Uranus. Two moons have been detected. Neptune has remained untouched by the activity of the Space Age, although clouds have been detected in its atmosphere. The planet remains an enigma, too far away to see well from Earth, almost too far away to reach.Neptune, the most distant gas giant planet from the Sun, is so far away that it is only a tiny, blurred image in the 154-cm (60-inch) telescope at the Catalina Observatory. Three images show dark absorption bands, due to the presence of atmospheric methane (CH4), across the planet's equator. Bright regions at the poles are produced by a high haze of ice crystals. An image of Neptune shows the uniform, featureless appearance of the planet when seen in visible light. (The following is from the NASA publication"Voyager at Neptune: 1989," JPL 400-353, March 1989.)* Uranus and Neptune are often thought of as a pair, because of their great distance from the Sun and their similarities in size and color. But already scientists expect that Neptune will be vastly different from any of the other planets yet studied.* Although Neptune is the fourth largest planet, it is invisible to the naked eye because it orbits in the outer regions of the solar system, 4 1/2 billion kilometers (nearly 3 billion miles) from the Sun. (In fact, Neptune is currently the farthest planet from the SunΓÇösince the early 1970s, Pluto has been closer to the Sun than Neptune has, and it will remain so until the end of this century.)* At this distance, Neptune receives nearly 1,000 times less sunlight than Earth, and about two and one-half times less than Uranus, but its overall temperature is about the same as that of Uranus. Therefore, scientists believe that Neptune must have some internal heat of its own, as do Jupiter and Saturn.* Neptune's seasons last more than 40 years. Its rotational axis is tilted about 30 degrees to the plane of its orbit around the Sun (Earth's axis tilts 23.5 degrees). At this phase in Neptune's sojourn around the Sun, it is summer in the southern hemisphere and there is continuous daylight at the south pole, while the north pole is cloaked in darkness.* Both planets rotate at about the same rateΓÇöUranus' internal rotation rate is 17 hours 14 minutes, while Neptune's atmospheric rotation rate is between 17 and 18 hours. Rotation rates of planets can be measured in two ways: by tracking cloud features in the atmosphere or by monitoring the radio emissions generated by electrons spiraling into the planet's magnetic field. Radio emissions give the rotation rate of the bulk of the planet because the magnetic field is generated in the planet's interior.* Measurements obtained by tracking cloud features include the additional effects of atmospheric winds. As Voyager 2 nears Neptune, the planetary radio astronomy experiment will determine the rotation rate of the planet's interior.* With an equatorial diameter of about 49,400 kilometers (30,700 miles), Neptune is only slightly smaller than Uranus. But Neptune is denser, indicating that it must contain a larger quantity of heavier materials than does Uranus.* Like Uranus, Neptune is believed to be composed primarily of rock and melted ice, mixed with hydrogen and helium. The combination of infrared and radio observations will provide a measurement of the relative amounts of helium and hydrogen in Neptune as compared with the amounts in the other gaseous outer planets and the Sun.* Despite Neptune's remoteness, astronomers have been able to learn a few things about the planet's atmosphere. (Light emitted and reflected from an atmosphere contains information about the atmosphere's chemistry and composition.) At times, high-resolution images taken from Earth-based telescopes indicate the existence of thin atmospheric hazes over major portions of the planet. The haze, which comes and goes in a matter of days or weeks, may consist of methane ice crystals.* If there are methane clouds on Neptune, they probably condense at a pressure of about 2 bars (twice the atmospheric pressure at sea level on Earth) and a temperature of about 85 kelvins (-305┬░ F). Voyager 2's radio signals can probe to a pressure level of 3 to 5 bars, so there is a good chance of detecting the base of the methane clouds, which will indicate the amount of methane in Neptune's atmosphere. Although other cloud layers, including water-ice clouds, are expected deeper in the atmosphere, Voyager 2 will not be able to detect them. While the spacecraft is in Neptune's shadow, it will maneuver to precisely track the outer edge of the planet to enable Voyager's radio signal to probe Neptune's atmosphere.* There is evidence that Neptune has a magnetic field, as do Mercury, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus. Voyager 2 is not likely to penetrate the planet's magnetosphere until the last day before the spacecraft's closest approach to the planet.RING ARCS* Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus are encircled by ring systems, but Neptune's rings may be a series of ring arcs.* A classic technique in identifying ring systems is to monitor the brightness of a star as a planet's ring region passes in front of (occults) the star as seen by the observer. Rings may be deduced if the starlight blinks off and on in a regular pattern on both sides of the planet. However, the effects that may be due to ring material near Neptune have been seen in only about 7 percent of the occultation studies to date, and never has the same ring been seen on both sides of the planet. Pieces of rings, or ring arcs, could explain these results.* Currently, scientists believe that there may be three narrow (8- to 20-kilometer or 5- to 12-mile) near-circular sets of arcs in or near Neptune's equatorial plane at distances of 17,000 to 42,000 kilometers (10,500 to 26,100 miles) from the planet's cloud tops. The size of particles comprising these rings could range from tiny dust particles to pebbles.* Voyager 2's flight path carried the spacecraft close to the outermost set of possible ring arcs. As at Uranus, there is likely to be diffuse material that could fill much of the space within the ring arc region. Although such a diffuse sheet of material is not expected outside the area of the possible ring arcs, the flight path can be adjusted as late as 10 days before the closest approach to Neptune, should more-distant ring arcs be discovered.Several ring observations will be retargeted if individual ring arcs are located in images taken as the spacecraft approaches the planet. Retargeting to these ring arcs can take place as late as a day or two before closest approach.* As the spacecraft passes behind the rings, changes in the radio signal will be analyzed to determine the sizes of the particles and the structure of the rings.(The following is from "The Solar System," NASA/ASEP, 1989, p. 11.)* Neptune is named for the Roman god of the sea. Neptune's symbol is the fishing spear.* This is the eighth planet from the Sun.* Neptune is the smallest of the gas planets.* Neptune circles the Sun every 164.1 Earth years.* One day on Neptune is 16 hours and 7 minutes.* The gravity on Neptune is 1.15 of Earth's gravity.* The diameter of the Neptune is 30,780 miles.* Neptune was discovered in 1846; this was the first time a planet was found by mathematical calculations.* Neptune is a twin planet to Uranus.* Neptune's bluish-green color is caused by methane gas (natural gas).* Neptune's atmosphere is made up of hydrogen, helium, and methane.* Neptune has three rings.* Neptune has eight moons (Triton, Nereid and six others).* Neptune's moon Triton is slowly spiralling in toward the planet.* Triton is the only large satellite with retrograde orbital motion (east to west), and with the same face toward the planet (synchronous rotation).* Neptune receives 900 times less sunlight than Earth, less than half of Uranus, but Neptune's temperature is the same as Uranus.* Voyager 2 will fly-by the planet on August 25, 1989.* Neptune's Great Dark Spot is reminiscent of Jupiter's hurricane-like storms and is large enough to contain the entire Earth.* Neptune's moon Triton shows evidence of a remarkable geological history, and Voyager 2 images show active geyser-like eruptions spewing invisible nitrogen gas and dark dust particles several kilometers into space.* Triton has a minimal atmosphere (1/70,000 of surface pressure on Earth). </text>
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<text>(NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Voyager at Uranus: 1986," JPL 400-268, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., July 1985, p. 5.) (Updated data from Voyager) Satellite Diameter Distance from Planet Miranda 472 km 129,400 km Ariel 1158 km 191,000 km Umbriel 1169 km 266,300 km Titania 1578 km 435,000 km Oberon 1523 km 583,500 km</text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Voyager, the Grandest Tour: The Mission to the Outer Planets," JPL 400-445, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., April 1991, p. 26.) MIRANDA* Miranda may have been frozen in the midst of a geologic upheaval during which its body was almost literally turned inside out.* Voyager 2's closest approach to Uranus on January 24, 1986, brought the spacecraft near Miranda. This was the closest satellite flyby of the encounter with Uranus. Miranda was the smallest of the five Uranian moons known before Voyager 2. It seems too small and cold to possess the diverse geologic features it has. Giant faults have sliced canyons as deep as 12 miles into the surface. Rolling plains that are heavily cratered about large patches of grooved and ridged terrain. These characteristics suggest Miranda may have undergone strong tidal heating in the past, possibly during the time when the small moon occupied a chaotic orbit around Uranus. Whatever forces shaped Miranda, they seem to have stopped. * Planetary scientists have theorized that Miranda was frozen in the midst of a geologic process that most terrestrial (solid, Earth-like) bodies are thought to have undergone at an early age, a process in which the body almost literally turns inside out. Still other theories put forth that Miranda is the reaggregated sum of the parts of one or more moons that shattered in a collision with a comet. ARIEL (Photo, JPL 400-288B, February 1986)* Most of the visible surface consists of relatively cratered terrain transected by fault scarps and fault-bounded valleys (graben). Some of the largest valleys are partly filled with younger, less heavily cratered deposits. Bright spots near the limb are chiefly the rims of small craters. Though the youngest features on Ariel, these brightly rimmed craters probably were formed over a long span of geological time. Even with a diameter of only about 1,200 kilometers (750 miles), Ariel has clearly experienced a great deal of geological activity in the past.(The following is from "The Mission to the Outer Planets," NASA JPL 400-445, April 1991, p. 26.) TITANIA*Titania, the largest of Uranus' moons, shows long, deep fault lines. UMBRIEL* Umbriel is the darkest of Uranus' larger moons, reflecting only 21 percent of the sunlight it receives. OBERON* Oberon's icy surface displays several large impact craters. A 13-mile-high peak protrudes at lower left.</text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) UranusIn January 1986, four and a half years after visiting Saturn, Voyager 2 completed the first close-up survey of the uranian system. The brief flyby revealed more information about Uranus and its retinue of icy moons than had been gleaned from ground observations since the planet's discovery over two centuries ago by the English astronomer William Herschel.Uranus, third largest of the planets, is an oddball of the solar system. Unlike the other planets (with the exception of Pluto), this giant lies tipped on its side with its north and south poles alternately facing the Sun during an 84-year swing around the solar system. During Voyager 2's flyby, the south pole faced the Sun. Uranus might have been knocked over when an Earth-sized object collided with it early in the life of the solar system.Voyager 2 discovered that Uranus' magnetic field does not follow the usual north-south axis found on the other planets. Instead, the field is tilted 60 degrees and offset from the planet's center, a phenomenon that on Earth would be like having one magnetic pole in New York City and the other in the city of Djakarta, on the island of Java in Indonesia.Uranus' atmosphere consists mainly of hydrogen, with some 12 percent helium and small amounts of ammonia, methane and water vapor. The planet's blue color occurs because methane in its atmosphere absorbs all other colors. Wind speeds range up to 580 kilometers (360 miles) per hour, and temperatures near the cloud tops average -221 degrees Celsius (-366 degrees Fahrenheit).Uranus' sunlit south pole is shrouded in a kind of photochemical "smog" believed to be a combination of acetylene, ethane and other sunlight-generated chemicals. Surrounding the planet's atmosphere and extending thousands of kilometers into space is a mysterious ultraviolet sheen known as "electroglow."Approximately 8,000 kilometers (5,000 miles) below Uranus' cloud tops, there is thought to be a scalding ocean of water and dissolved ammonia some 10,000 kilometers (6,200 miles) deep. Beneath this ocean is an Earth-sized core of heavier materials.Voyager 2 discovered 10 new moons, 16-169 kilometers (10-105 miles) in diameter, orbiting Uranus. The five previously knownΓÇöMiranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and OberonΓÇörange in size from 520 to 1,610 kilometers (323 to 1,000 miles) across. Representing a geological showcase, these five moons are half-ice, half-rock spheres that are cold and dark and show evidence of past activity, including faulting and ice flows.The most remarkable of Uranus' moons is Miranda. Its surface features high cliffs as well as canyons, craterpocked plains and winding valleys. The sharp variations in terrain suggest that, after the moon formed, it was smashed apart by a collision with another bodyΓÇöan event not unusual in our solar system, which contains many objects that have impact craters or are fragments from large impacts. What is extraordinary is that Miranda apparently reformed with some of the material that had been in its interior exposed on its surface.Uranus was thought to have nine dark rings; Voyager 2 imaged eleven. In contrast to Saturn's rings, which are composed of bright particles, Uranus' rings are primarily made up of dark, boulder-sized chunks.</text>
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<text>(Bevan M. French and Stephen P. Maran, eds., "A Meeting with the Universe," NASA EP-177, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.) *The ancients knew of five planets in the sky. In less than a generation, all five have been brought close to us by spacecraft. Further out in space, three more planets await our inspection. Uranus, the first outward beyond Saturn, is nearly 3 billion kilometers (nearly 2 billion miles) from the Sun and takes 84 years to make one orbit around it. * Pioneer 10 passed the orbit of Uranus, but did not come near the planet. Uranus is another gas giant, smaller than Saturn, a cold world that is a distant greenish disk even in the largest telescopes. From Earth, we can see five moons circling the planet. * Uranus has one unique property: its axis of rotation lies in the plane of its orbit rather than nearly vertical to it as is the case with the other planets. Because of this curious orientation, Uranus moves around the Sun, not so much like a top spinning on its end, but like a barrel rolling along on its side.* The greatest Space Age discovery about Uranus was made in 1977, not from a spacecraft but rather with a telescope mounted in a high-altitude jet aircraft, the Kuiper Airborne Observatory. Like many great discoveries, it was entirely unexpected, and the scientists were looking at Uranus for something entirely different. They intended to study Uranus' atmosphere by measuring the light from a distant star as the planet passed slowly in front of it. What happened was that the star seemed to flicker on and off several times, long before and long after the planet had passed in front. The only explanation was that Uranus like Saturn and now Jupiter has rings! The planet is surrounded by at least five and perhaps nine rings. The rings are dark, thin, narrow, and invisible from Earth, but they were thick enough to block out the light from the star.* Uranus had its first visitor from Earth. The spacecraft Voyager 2 followed a path that took it past Uranus in 1986.* The dark rings of Uranus were covered by telescopic observations from a NASA aircraft in 1977. The thin narrow rings, composed of dark particles, are invisible from Earth. They were discovered when they blocked the light of a distant star on a night when Uranus passed in front of it. The rotation axis of Uranus lies almost in the plane of its orbit around the Sun, so the ring system (in the plane of the planet's equator), appears like a gigantic bullseye as Uranus rolls around the Sun. (The following is from "The Solar System," NASA/ASEP, 1989, p. 10.)Uranus* Uranus is named for the father of Saturn and grandfather of Jupiter.* Uranus' symbol is the sign used for the metal platinum.* This is the seventh planet from the Sun.* Uranus is the third largest planet in our solar system.* William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781.* Uranus circles the Sun every 84.01 Earth years.* One day on Uranus is 17 hours, 14 minutes, and 24 seconds long.* The gravity of Uranus is .86 of Earth's gravity.* Uranus is one-fifth denser than Earth.* The diameter of Uranus is 32,116 miles.* Uranus is 19 times Earth's distance from the Sun.* Uranus' bluish-green color is caused by methane gas (natural gas).* Uranus' atmosphere is made up of helium, hydrogen, and methane.* Uranus has 15 moons (which are named for characters from famous plays).A. Cordelia F. Rosalind K. MirandaB. Ophelia G. Portia L. ArielC. Bianca H. Cressida M. UmbrielD. Juliet I. Belinda N. TitaniaE. Desdemona J. Puck O. Oberon* Uranus is tipped-over on its side.* Communication to Uranus takes about 2 hours and 45 minutes.* Voyager 2's flyby of Uranus took place in January 1986. </text>
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<text>(NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Voyager at Uranus: 1986," JPL 400-268, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., July 1985.) William Herschel and the Discovery of UranusA professional interest in musical theory, which broadened to encompass a general study of mathematics, preceded Sir William Herschel's passionate interest in astronomy and led to his discovery of the seventh planet.He was born Frederich Wilhelm Herschel in Hanover in 1738. His father, a bandmaster in the Hanoverian Guards, encouraged him toward a musical career, and Herschel joined the Hanoverian Guards as a musician in his midteens. He moved to England in his early twenties after service in the Seven Years' War. With the goal of becoming a composer, he traveled throughout England working as a freelance musician, music copier, and organist. In 1766, Herschel won appointment as the organist for the new Octagon Chapel in Bath. He was later named director of public concerts for the city.Herschel read widely on the subjects of harmonics, mathematics, and philosophy. Historians believe the first book he read on astronomy was James Ferguson's "Astronomy Explained Upon Sir Isaac Newton's Principles, and Made Easy to Those Who Have Not Studied Mathematics."By his late thirties, his dabbling in astronomy had become a more consuming hobby. He put rudi-mentary telescopes together from scraps and used parts. The more of the sky he saw, the more he wanted to see. By late 1773, when he couldn't afford to buy the most powerful telescope available, he determined to build his own.Herschel and his brother Alexander and sister Caroline, also musicians, shared a house in Bath. Building William's telescopes became a family affair.Alexander helped with the construction. "It was to my sorrow," wrote Caroline in her memoirs, "that I saw almost every room turned into a workshop...Alex putting up a huge turning machine in a bedroom for turning patterns, grinding glasses and turning eyepieces."But Caroline, who would also become a talented astronomer, pitched in as well, even feeding Herschel his meals while he spent hours grinding or polishing by hand a metal speculum, or reflector, for his telescope.With the best of his telescopes (a 7-foot focal-length instrument with a 6.2-inch reflector), he began what he called "reviews of the heavens" from his garden. Over months of observations, he believed he'd spotted forests of trees on the moon and noted them in his meticulously kept log. He spent many of his observing hours studying double stars and decided to study generally the distribution of the stars and to try to calculate their distances.While studying stars in the constellation Gemini the night of March 13, 1781, he found a disk-like object moving slowly across the starfield. He believed it to be a comet and reported his observation as such to the British Astronomer Royal.Within days, however, the object's orbit was calculated as one no comet would likely follow. In addition, it was so distant that, if it had been a comet, it would have been too small to be seen with the instruments of the day.News of the sighting spread quickly throughout the scientific community. Astronomers and mathematicians across Europe computed the object's approximate size and orbit and, by May 1781, concluded that 42-year-old amateur astronomer William Herschel of Bath had discovered a new planet as far beyond Saturn as Saturn is from the Sun.Many names were proposed for the new body: "Hypercronius" ("above Saturn"), "Minerva" (the Roman goddess of wisdom), and "Herschel" were candidates. Herschel offered "Georgium Sidus" ("The Georgian Planet") to flatter King George III of England and Herschel's native Hanover. (Royal patronage would later support Herschel's work during his distinguished scientific career.) But, astronomy being an international concern and George being an unpopular monarch outside of England and Hanover, variations on his name were vetoed. Astronomers finally agreed upon "Uranus"ΓÇöpersonification of the heavens in Greek mythology, son of Gaea (Earth) and, by her, father of Saturn and grandfather to Jupiter.Herschel, continually building bigger and better telescopes throughout his career, also discovered the Uranian moons Titania and Oberon in 1787. English astronomer William Lassell found Ariel and Umbriel in 1851. Herschel's son, John, named all four. They are the only moons in the solar system not called after figures in Greek and Roman mythology. Instead, they are named for characters in English literature: Oberon and Titania are the king and queen of the fairies in Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night's Dream"; Ariel and Umbriel appear in Alexander Pope's "Rape of the Lock"; Ariel also appears as a spirit in Shakespeare's "The Tempest." Miranda, discovered by the late American astronomer Gerald Kuiper in 1948, is named after Prospero's daughter in "The Tempest." </text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Voyager 1 Encounters Saturn," JPL 400-100, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., December 1980.) MIMAS* Mimas, Saturn's innermost large satellite, has an impact crater covering more than one-quarter the diameter of the entire moon. Nowhere else in the solar system has such a disproportionately large feature been seen. In fact, it is believed that any impact larger than this would probably have shattered Mimas into two or more fragments. The crater has a raised rim and central peak, typical of large impact structures on terrestrial planets. Additional smaller craters, 15 to 45 kilometers (10 to 30 miles) in diameter, can be seen scattered across the surface, particularly along the terminator. Mimas is one of the small, low-density saturnian satellites, implying that it is composed primarily of ice.* The other side of Mimas is a uniformly and heavily cratered surface. Mimas' surface is very reflective (about 60 percent), indicating that it consist largely of ice, which has been chipped and pulverized by aeons of meteoritic bombardment. DIONE* Dione reveals two distinctly different hemispheres. The photo on the previous card shows Dione's trailing side. Bright radiating patterns are probably rays of debris thrown out of impact craters; other bright areas may be topographic ridges and valleys. Dione's other hemisphere also has many impact cratersΓÇöthe record of cosmic collisions. The largest crater is less than 100 kilometers (60 miles) in diameter and includes a well-developed central peak. Sinuous valleys (near each pole) are probably the result of crustal fracturing in the moon's icy crust. Dione's diameter is only 1,100 kilometers (700 miles), much smaller than any of Jupiter's icy moons. NEW SATELLITESVoyager 1 photographed six tiny moons, some that had never been seen before. Satellites 10 and 11, dubbed the "coorbitals," share an orbit 91,000 kilometers (57,000 miles) above Saturn's cloudtops. The leading satellite has a diameter of about 160 kilometers (100 miles), while the trailing satellite has an irregular shape, approximately 105 by 65 kilometers (65 by 40 miles).Little is known about satellites 12, 13, 14, and 15 aside from their orbits and periods. Satellite 12 orbits at the same distance from Saturn as Dione, at a point about 60 degrees ahead of Dione. Satellites 13 and 14, outside and inside the F-Ring (respectively), appear to "herd" this thin ring between them. Satellite 15 appears to limit the outer edge of the A-Ring in a similar manner. INNER SATELLITESMimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea represent a body size not previously explored by spacecraft. They are larger than Jupiter's Amalthea and Mars' Phobos and Deimos, yet smaller than Mercury, our Moon, or Jupiter's large satellites. Their diameters range from 390 kilometers (240 miles) for Mimas to 1,530 kilometers (950 miles) for Rhea, and they are probably composed primarily of water ice.With the exception of Enceladus, all of these moons have heavily cratered surfaces, looking much like the Moon and Mercury. Mimas displays an impact crater whose diameter is one-fourth that of the satelliteΓÇösuch an impact must have nearly shattered the icy satellite. Tethys has a valley 70 kilometers (40 miles) wide that stretches 800 kilometers (500 miles) across the satellite, anapparent crustal fracture resulting from seismic activity. Several sinuous valleys, some of which appear to branch, are visible on Dione's surface. Both Dione and Rhea have bright, wispy streaks on their already highly reflective surfaces, perhaps caused by ice thrown out of craters by meteorite impacts.Of the five inner moons, Enceladus appears the smoothest, but we will have to wait for Voyager 2 to photograph the satellite at greater resolution in 1981. Since the maximum intensity of the E-Ring occurs near Enceladus' orbit, Enceladus may be a source of E-Ring particles. TITANTitan is now known to be smaller than Jupiter's Ganymede. Its diameter is less than 5,120 kilometers (3,180 miles), which implies a density twice that of water ice. A dense, hazy atmosphere at least 400 kilometers (250 miles) thick obscures the surface. Voyager 1 determined that Titan has a nitrogen-rich atmosphere (as does Earth), but with concentrations of hydrocarbons such as methane (natural gas), ethane, acetylene, ethylene, and deadly hydrogen cyanide. The haze layers merge into a darkened hood over the north pole. At the poles, liquid nitrogen lakes may form. The surface temperature is probably near 100 kelvins (280┬░ Fahrenheit), only slightly warmer than the boiling point of liquid nitrogen.Titan has no appreciable magnetic field and therefore possesses no large liquid conducting core. It does, however, supply a small amount of charged particles to Saturn's magnetosphere.The southern hemisphere is somewhat brighter than the northern, perhaps as a result of seasonal effects. OUTER SATELLITESOf the three known outer satellites, Voyager 1 only studied Hyperion and Iapetus from a distance. Tiny Phoebe, in its retrograde (clockwise) orbit, will be studied by Voyager 2 in the summer of 1981. Hyperion and Iapetus are most likely composed of water ice, although their masses and densities are uncertain. Iapetus has one bright and one dark hemisphere. The dark side, which faces forward as lapetus circles Saturn, reflects about one-fifth as much light as the trailing, bright side.</text>
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<text> SATURN DISCOVERY</text>
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<text>(Bill Yenne, "The Atlas of the Solar System," Brompton Books Corp., Greenwich, 1987, pp. 125-128.) * Galileo Galilei was the first to view Saturn's system of rings in the year 1610. Because he happened to be viewing their edge, he failed to recognize them as rings. In fact, he mistakenly interpreted the rings to be two moons similar to those he had discovered near the planet Jupiter.* In 1655, the rings of Saturn, a Dutch astronomer named Christiaan Huygens was able to discern what Galileo had thought to be moons as rings. Huygens benefitted from a much improved telescope than that used by Galileo.* In 1671, a second moon of Saturn called Iapetus was found by the Italian astronomer Cassini. He also discovered (1675) that Saturn had more than one ring, i.e. a concentric pair of rings.* A third ring was discovered by Johann Franz Encke in 1837 using a telescope at the Berlin Observatory.* Until Pioneer 11 approached Saturn in September of 1979, the planet was thought to have but three rings.</text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) SaturnNo planet in the solar system is adorned like Saturn. Its exquisite ring system is unrivaled. Like Jupiter, Saturn is composed mostly of hydrogen. But in contrast to the vivid colors and wild turbulence found in jovian clouds, Saturn's atmosphere has a more subtle, butterscotch hue, and its markings are muted by high-altitude haze. Given Saturn's somewhat placid-looking appearance, scientists were surprised at the high-velocity equatorial jet stream that blows some 1,770 kilometers (1,100 miles) per hour.Three American spacecraft have visited Saturn. Pioneer 11 sped by the planet and its moon Titan in September 1979, returning the first close-up images. Voyager 1 followed in November 1980, sending back breathtaking photographs that revealed for the first time the complexities of Saturn's ring system and moons. Voyager 2 flew by the planet and its moons in August 1981.The rings are composed of countless low-density particles orbiting individually around Saturn's equator at progressive distances from the cloud tops. Analysis of spacecraft radio waves passing through the rings showed that the particles vary widely in size, ranging from dust to house-sized boulders. The rings are bright because they are mostly ice and frosted rock.The rings might have resulted when a moon or a passing body ventured too close to Saturn. The unlucky object would have been torn apart by great tidal forces on its surface and in its interior. Or the object may not have been fully formed to begin with and disintegrated under the influence of Saturn's gravity. A third possibility is that the object was shattered by collisions with larger objects orbiting the planet.Unable either to form into a moon or to drift away from each other, individual ring particles appear to be held in place by the gravitational pull of Saturn and its satellites. These complex gravitational interactions form the thousands of ringlets that make up the major rings.Radio emissions quite similar to the static heard on an AM car radio during an electrical storm were detected by the Voyager spacecraft. These emissions are typical of lightning but are believed to be coming from Saturn's ring system rather than its atmosphere, where no lightning was observed. As they had at Jupiter, the Voyagers saw a version of Earth's auroras near Saturn's poles.The Voyagers discovered new moons and found several satellites that share the same orbit. We learned that some moons shepherd ring particles, maintaining Saturn's rings and the gaps in the rings. Saturn's 18th moon was discovered in 1990 from images taken by Voyager 2 in 1981.Voyager 1 determined that Titan has a nitrogen-based atmosphere with methane and argonΓÇöone more like Earth's in composition than the carbon dioxide atmospheres of Mars and Venus. Titan's surface temperature of -179 degrees Celsius (-290 degrees Fahrenheit) implies that there might be water-ice islands rising above oceans of ethane-methane liquid or sludge. Unfortunately, Voyager 1's cameras could not penetrate the moon's dense clouds.Continuing photochemistry from solar radiation may be converting Titan's methane to ethane, acetylene andΓÇöin combination with nitrogenΓÇöhydrogen cyanide. The latter compound is a building block of amino acids. These conditions may be similar to the atmospheric conditions of primeval Earth between three and four billion years ago. However, Titan's atmospheric temperature is believed to be too low to permit progress beyond this stage of organic chemistry.The exploration of Saturn will continue with the Cassini mission. The Cassini spacecraft will orbit the planet and will also deploy a probe called Huygens, which will be dropped into Titan's atmosphere and fall to the surface. Cassini will use the probe as well as radar to peer through Titan's clouds and will spend years examining the saturnian system.</text>
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<text> (Bevan M. French and Stephen P. Maran, eds., "A Meeting with the Universe," NASA EP-177, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.) About the Planet Saturn* Among important recent findings from Earth-based observations of the Saturn system have been the detection of a deuterium compound in the atmosphere of Saturn, indications that the small ring particles are composed of or covered by ice, the detection of ice on the moons Rhea, Iapetus, and Dione, and the discovery of methane in the atmospher of Titan.* The first spacecraft flyby was accomplished by Pioneer Saturn in 1979. Among the findings wereΓÇó Confirming ground-based studies, Saturn has an internal heat source like Jupiter and radiates about twice as much energy as it receives from the Sun.ΓÇó As suspected, Saturn must have internal shells of liquid and metallic hydrogen, small amounts of helium, ammonia, and water, and perhaps a small rocky core.ΓÇó A magnetic field was discovered around Saturn, larger than the Earth's, but smaller than that of Jupiter. It is five times as weak as predicted by theory.ΓÇó The axis of Saturn's magnetic field is aligned parallel to the planet's rotation axis, contrary to the circumstances in both the Earth and Jupiter.ΓÇó The boundary of the magnetic field varies due to changes in the pressure of the solar wind on the sunward side, as was found in the case of Jupiter.ΓÇó The atmosphere of Saturn has weak bands, rather than the conspicuous belts and zones seen on Jupiter.ΓÇó There is a high haze, perhaps composed of crystals of ammonia ice, above the clouds.ΓÇó Apparent high-speed jet streams were detected in the atmosphere.ΓÇó Confirming ground-based measurements, the cloud-top temperatures were measured at aboutΓÇö 200┬░ C (-330┬░ F), only about 73┬░ C (130┬░ F) above absolute zero.ΓÇó Radiation belts were discovered that are weaker than those of Jupiter. The radiation is absorbed (cut off) by the rings and moons of Saturn. Cutoffs in the radiation data were used to infer the presence of additional rings and moons beyond those already known from visual observations.* The Voyager 1 encounter (November, 1980) provided a closer look at Saturn and its surroundings. Some of the new discoveries wereΓÇó The details of Saturn's atmosphere appear similar to Jupiter's, with alternating light and dark bands and circulating storm systems.ΓÇó Wind speeds up to 1,500 kilometers per hour (930 miles per hour) were measured near Saturn's equator; these winds are four to five times as fast as those measured on Jupiter.ΓÇó Unusual atmospheric features include a ribbon- like wave feature, large and small clouds, and a red oval similar to, but smaller than, Jupiter's Great Red Spot.ΓÇó Aurorae were observed in the atmosphere above Saturn's polesΓÇó Although lightning bolts were not observed on Saturn, radio signals typical of lightning flashes were recorded. The signals may be produced by electrical discharges in the rings rather than in Saturn's atmosphere.The Rings* The Pioneer Saturn flyby in 1979 made several new discoveries about the rings:ΓÇó The rings consist largely of particles several centimeters in diameter. They are extremely cold and possibly composed of frozen water and other ices.ΓÇó An extensive cloud of hydrogen was discovered around the rings.ΓÇó Two new rings (called F and G) were discovered, and a gap between rings was confirmed.* Voyager 1 provided much more detail on the beauty, complexity, and sometimes baffling nature of the rings. Among the discoveries wereΓÇó The six known rings are actually composed of hundreds of tiny, thin ringlets with intervening spaces, so that the whole ring system looks something like the grooves in a phonograph record. Even the Cassini division, once thought to be empty space between the A and B rings, contains several dozen ringlets. There are far too many rings to be explained by our present theories of how planetary rings form and remain stable.ΓÇó Elongated radial features that last from hours to days were observed in the Bring. These "spokes" may be clouds of electrified dust rotating around Saturn above the plane of the rings.ΓÇó The thin outer F-ring, discovered by Pioneer Saturn, was resolved into three distinct but intertwined ringlets. This braided ring structure is very difficult to explain; it seems likely that both electrical and gravitational forces are at work.ΓÇó Two small moons, one on each side of the F-ring, may act as "shepherds," their gravitational attraction keeping the ring particles on track between the orbits of the two moons.The Moons* Nine (possibly ten) moons had been detected from Earth. The encounter of Pioneer Saturn(September, 1979) provided several new discoveries:ΓÇó At least two new moons were discovered by Pioneer and ground-based observations.ΓÇó Accurate masses were determined for the moons Rhea and Iapetus.ΓÇó The cloud-top temperature of Titan was found to be very low, about -200┬░C (-330┬░F), and a hydrogen cloud was discovered around Titan.* A much closer look at several of Saturn's moons was provided by Voyager 1. The new results included:ΓÇó Six tiny, unnamed moons were photographed, some of them for the first time. Satellites 10 and 11 share the same orbit and must frequently undergo some orbital "evasive actions" to avoid colliding. Satellite 12 shares the orbit of the larger moon Dione. The shepherd Satellites 13 and 14, on either side of the thin F-ring, may exert gravitational forces to keep the ring in place, while Satellite 15, located just outside the large A- ring, likewise may help keep that ring in place.ΓÇó The inner moons Mimas, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea all have heavily cratered surfaces like those of the Moon and Mercury, although Saturn's moons are composed largely of water ice. This shows that meteorite bombardment, even as far out as Saturn, has been a major process in shaping the solar system. Mimas is marked by a huge impact crater that is fully one-fourth the diameter of Mimas itself. This crater makes Mimas look like a staring eyeball, and the impact that formed it was almost intense enough to blast Mimas into fragments.ΓÇó The inner moons also show traces of internal geological activity. Tethys has a rift-like valley that stretches 800 kilometers (500 miles) across its surface. Dione shows several sinuous, branching valleys. Both Dione and Rhea have bright, wispy streaks on their surfaces.ΓÇó Although Enceladus orbits between two heavily cratered moons, Mimas and Dione, it seems smooth and entirely uncratered, as viewed from Voyager 1.ΓÇó Titan, Saturn's largest moon, has a diameter of 5,120 kilometers (3,180 miles), which makes it smaller than Jupiter's moon Ganymede.* Titan's dense, hazy atmosphere is at least 400 kilometers (250 miles) thick and completely shrouds the surface from view. Titan's atmosphere was found to be mostly nitrogen (like the Earth's), with minor methane and other hydrocarbons. At the surface, the pressure of Titan's atmosphere is at least twice that on the Earth. The surface temperature, about 175┬░ C ( 280┬░ F), is low enough to permit lakes and streams of liquid nitrogen to form on its surface.* Long-range Voyager 1 photographs of Iapetus, an outer satellite, confirmed Earth-based observations by showing that the satellite has light and dark faces, but no explanation for this puzzling difference was found.(The following is from "The Solar System," NASA/ASEP, 1989, p. 6.)* Saturn is named for the Roman god of reaping.* Saturn's symbol is a curved sickle.* This is the sixth planet from the Sun.* Saturn is the second largest planet.* This is the least dense planet in our solar system.* Saturn travels around the Sun every 29.48 Earth years.* Saturn's day is 10 hours, 39 minutes, and 20 seconds long.* The diameter of Saturn is 74,400 miles.* The gravity on Saturn is 1.07 of Earth's gravity.* The first close-up of Jupiter was taken by Pioneer 11, in 1979.* Saturn has at least a thousand rings.* Saturn has 21 moons.* Saturn's atmosphere is made up of hydrogen and helium.* This planet has no solid surface.* Titan, a moon of Saturn, is the second largest known moon in our solar system.* Titan has a nitrogen-based atmosphere.* Spacecrafts Pioneer 10 and 11 and Voyager 1 and 2 have visited Saturn. </text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) Jupiter SatellitesIn 1610, Galileo Galilei aimed his telescope at Jupiter and spotted four points of light orbiting the planet. For the first time, humans had seen the moons of another world. In honor of their discoverer, these four bodies would become known as the Galilean satellites or moons. But Galileo might have happily traded this honor for one look at the dazzling photographs returned by the Voyager spacecraft as they flew past these planet-sized satellites.One of the most remarkable findings of the Voyager mission was the presence of active volcanoes on the Galilean moon Io. Volcanic eruptions had never before been observed on a world other than Earth. The Voyager cameras identified at least nine active volcanoes on Io, with plumes of ejected material extending as far as 280 kilometers (175 miles) above the moon's surface.Io's pizza-colored terrain, marked by orange and yellow hues, is probably the result of sulfur-rich materials brought to the surface by volcanic activity. Volcanic activity on this satellite is the result of tidal flexing caused by the gravitational tug-of-war between Io, Jupiter, and the other three Galilean moons.Europa, approximately the same size as our Moon, is the brightest Galilean satellite. The moon's surface displays a complex array of streaks, indicating the crust has been fractured. Caught in a gravitational tug-of-war like Io, Europa has been heated enough to cause its interior ice to meltΓÇöapparently producing a liquid-water ocean. This ocean is covered by an ice crust that has formed where water is exposed to the cold of space. Europa's core is made of rock that sank to its center.Like Europa, the other two Galilean moons, Ganymede and Callisto, are worlds of ice and rock. Ganymede is the largest satellite in the solar system, ΓÇölarger than the planets Mercury and Pluto. The satellite is composed of about 50 percent water or ice and the rest rock. Ganymede's surface has areas of different brightness, indicating that in the past material oozed out of the moon's interior and was deposited at various locations on the surface.Callisto, only slightly smaller than Ganymede, has the lowest density of any Galilean satellite, suggesting that large amounts of water are part of its composition. Callisto is the most heavily cratered object in the solar system; no activity during its history has erased old craters except more impacts.Detailed studies of all the Galilean satellites will be performed by the Galileo Orbiter.</text>
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<text> (David Morrison and Jane Samz, "Voyage to Jupiter," NASA SP-439, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1980, pp. 7-9.) * All four Galilean satellites orbit within the magnetosphere of Jupiter; in contrast, our Moon lies well outside the terrestrial magnetosphere. Striking evidence of the interaction of the satellites and the magnetosphere was provided when it was found that the innermost large satellite, Io, actually affects the bursts of radio static produced by Jupiter. Only when Io is at certain places in its orbit are these strong bursts detected. Theorists suggested that electric currents flowing between the satellite and the planet might be responsible for this effect. The Jovian Satellites* For nearly three centuries after their discovery in 1610, the only known moons of Jupiter were the four large Galilean satellites. In 1892 E. E. Barnard, an American astronomer, found a much smaller fifth satellite orbiting very close to the planet, and between 1904 and 1974 eight additional satellites were found far outside the orbits of the Galilean satellites. The outer satellites are quite faint and presumably no more than a few tens of kilometers in diameter, and all have orbits that are much less regular than those of the five inner satellites. Four of them revolve in a retrograde direction, opposite to that of the inner satellites and Jupiter itself.* In 1975 the International Astronomical Union assumed the responsibility for assigning names to the nonGalilean satellites of Jupiter. Following tradition, they named the inner satellite Amalthea for the she-goat that suckled the young god Jupiter. The outer eight were named for lovers of Jupiter: Leda, Himalia, Lysithea, Elara, Ananke, Carme, Pasiphae, and Sinope. For the nonGalilean satellites, the "e" ending is reserved for satellites with retrograde orbits; those with normal orbits have names that end in "a."* Because they are so large, the Galilean satellites have attracted the most attention from astronomers. More than fifty years ago large telescopes were used to estimate their sizes, and a careful series of measurements of their light variation showed that all four always keep the same face pointed toward Jupiter, just as our Moon always turns the same face toward Earth. Also, the subtle gravitational perturbations they exert on each other were used to determine the approximate mass of each.* Callisto, the outermost Galilean satellite, is larger than the planet Mercury. It also has the lowest reflectivity, or albedo, of the four, suggesting that its surface may be composed of some rather dark, colorless rock. Callisto takes just over two weeks to orbit once around Jupiter.* Ganymede, which requires only seven days for one orbit, is the largest satellite in the Jovian system, being only slightly smaller than the planet Mars. Its albedo is much higher than that of Callisto, or of the rocky planets such as Mercury, Mars, or the Moon. In 1971 astronomers first measured the infrared spectrum of reflected sunlight from Ganymede and found the characteristic absorptions of water ice, indicating that this satellite is partially covered with highly reflective snow or ice.* Europa, which is slightly smaller than the Moon, circles Jupiter in half the time required by Ganymede. Its surface reflects about sixty percent of the incident sunlight, and the infrared spectrum shows prominent absorptions due to water ice; Europa appears to be almost entirely covered with ice. However, its color in the visible and ultraviolet part of the spectrum is not that of ice, so some other material must also be present.* Io, innermost of the Galilean satellites, is the same size as our Moon. It orbits the planet in 42 hours, half the period of Europa. Like Europa, it has a very high reflectivity, but, unlike Europa, it has no spectral absorptions indicative of water ice. Before Voyager, identification of the surface material on Io presented a major problem to planetary astronomers.* When the sizes and masses of these satellites were measured, astronomers could calculate their densities. The inner two, Io and Europa, both have densities about three times that of water, nearly the same as the density of the Moon, or of rocks in the crust of the Earth. Callisto and Ganymede have densities only half as large, far too low to be consistent with a rocky composition. The most plausible alternative to rock is a composition that includes ice as a major component. Calculations showed that if these satellites were composed of rock and ice, approximately equal quantities of each were required to account for the measured density. Thus the two outer Galilean satellites were thought to represent a new kind of solar system object, as large as one of the terrestrial planets, but composed in large part of ice.* In 1973 the attention of astronomers was dramatically drawn to Io when Robert Brownof Harvard University detected the faint yellow glow of sodium from the region of space surrounding it. It seemed that this satellite had an atmosphere, composed of the metal sodium! Continued observations showed, however, that this was not an atmosphere in the usual sense of the word. The gas atoms were not bound gravitationally to Io, but continuously escaped from it to form a gigantic cloud enveloping the orbit of the satellite. Fraser Fanale and Dennis Matson of the Caltech Jet Propulsion Laboratory suggested that bombardment of Io by high energy particles from the jovian Van Allen belts was knocking off atoms of sodium by a process called sputtering, releasing these atoms and allowing them to expand outward to form the observed sodium cloud. No one anticipated then that powerful volcanic eruptions on Io might also be contributing to this remarkable gas cloud.</text>
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<text>(David Morrison and Jane Samz, "Voyage to Jupiter," NASA SP-439, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1980, pp. 1-3.) * Ancient peoples all over the world recognized Jupiter as one of the brightest wandering lights in their skies. Only Venus is brighter, but Venus, always a morning or evening star, never rules over the dark midnight skies as Jupiter often does. * In Greek and Roman mythology the planet was identified with the most powerful of the gods and lord of the heavensΓÇöthe Greek god Zeus; the Roman god Jupiter.* As befits the king of the heavens, the planet Jupiter moves at a slow and stately pace. Twelve years are required for Jupiter to complete one orbit around the Sun. For about six months of each year, Jupiter shines down on us from the night sky, more brightly and steadily than any star. During the late 1970s it was a winter object, but in 1980 it will dominate the spring skies, becoming a summer "star" about 1982.Early Discoveries* Even seen through a small telescope or pair of binoculars, Jupiter looks like a real world, displaying a faintly banded disk quite unlike the tiny, brilliant image of a star. It also reveals the brightest members of its satellite family as star-like points spread out along a straight line extended east-west through the planet. There are four of these planet-sized moons; with their orbits seen edge-on from Earth, they seem to move constantly back and forth, changing their configuration hourly.* In January 1610, in his first attempt to apply the newly invented telescope to astronomy, Galileo discovered the four large satellites of Jupiter. He correctly interpreted their motion as being that of objects circling Jupiter, establishing the first clear proof of celestial motion around a center other than the Earth. The discovery of these satellites played an important role in supporting the Copernican revolution that formed the basis for modern astronomy.*A few decades later the satellites of Jupiter were used to make the first measurement of the speed of light. Observers following their motions had learned that the satellite clock seemed to run slow when Jupiter was far from Earth and to speed up when the two planets were closer together. In 1675 the Danish astronomer, Ole Roemer, explained that this change was due to the finite velocity of light. * The satellites only seemed to run slow at large distances because the light coming from them took longer to reach Earth. Knowing the dimensions of the orbits of Earth and Jupiter and the amount of the delay (about fifteen minutes), Roemer was able to calculate one of the most fundamental constants of the physical universeΓÇöthe speed of light (about 300,000 kilometers per second).* The four great moons of Jupiter are called the Galilean satellites after their discoverer. Their individual namesΓÇöIo, Europa, Ganymede, and CallistoΓÇöwere proposed by Simon Marius, a contemporary and rival of Galileo. (Marius claimed to have discovered the satellites a few weeks before Galileo did, but modern scholars tend to discredit his claim.) Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto are names of lovers of the god Jupiter in Greco-Roman mythology. Since Jupiter was not at all shy about taking lovers, there are enough such names for the other eleven Jovian satellites, as well as for those yet to be discovered.* In the century following Galileo's death, improvements in telescopes made it possible to measure the size of Jupiter and to note that it bulged at the equator. The equatorial diameter is known today to be 142,800 kilometers, while from pole to pole Jupiter measures only 133,500 kilometers. For comparison, the diameter of the Earth is 12,900 kilometers, only about one-tenth as great, and the flattening of Earth is also much smaller (less than one percent). By measuring the orbits of the satellites and applying the laws of planetary motion discovered by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, astronomers were also able to determine the total mass of JupiterΓÇöabout 2 x 10^24 tons, or 318 times the mass of the Earth.* Once the size and mass are known, it is possible to calculate another fundamental property of a planetΓÇöit's density. The density, which is the mass divided by the volume, provides important clues to the composition and interior structure of a planetary body. The density of Earth, a body composed primarily of rocky and metallic materials, is 5.6 times the density of water. The mass of Jupiter is 318 times that of Earth; its volume is 1,317 times that of Earth. Thus Jupiter's density is substantially lower than Earth's, amounting to 1.34 times the density of water. From this low density, it was evident long ago that Jupiter was not just a big brother of Earth and the other rocky planets in the inner solar system. Rather, Jupiter is the prototype of the giant, gas-rich planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. These giant planets must, from their low density, have a composition fundamentally different from that of Mercury, Venus, Earth, Moon, and Mars. Jupiter Through the Telescope* Jupiter is a beautiful sight seen with the naked eye on a clear night, but only through a telescope does it begin to reveal its magnificence. The most prominent features are alternating light and dark bands, running parallel to the equator and subtly shaded in tones of blue, yellow, brown, and orange. However, these bands are not the planet's only conspicuous markings. In 1664 the English astronomer Robert Hooke first reported seeing a large oval spot on Jupiter, and additional spots were noted as telescopes improved. As the planet rotates on its axis, such spots are carried across the disk and can be used to measure Jupiter's speed of rotation. The giant planet spins so fast that a jovian day is less than half as long as a day on Earth, averaging just under ten hours.* During the nineteenth century, observers using increasingly sophisticated telescopes were able to see more complex detail in the band structure, with wisps, streaks, and festoons that varied in intensity and color from year to year. Furthermore, observations revealed the remarkable fact that not all parts of the planet rotate with the same period; near the equator the apparent length of a jovian day is several minutes shorter than the average day at higher latitudes. It is thus apparent that Jupiter's surface is not solid, and astronomers came to realize that they were looking at a turbulent kaleidoscope of shifting clouds.* Although the face of Jupiter is always changing, some spots and other cloud features survive for years at a time, much longer than do the largest storms on Earth. The record for longevity goes to the Great Red Spot. This gigantic red oval, larger than the planet Earth, was first seen more than three centuries ago. From decade to decade it has changed in size and color, and for nearly fifty years in the late eighteenth century no sightings were reported, but since about 1840 the Great Red Spot has been the most prominent feature on the disk of Jupiter.* It was not until the twentieth century that the composition of the atmosphere of Jupiter could be measured. In 1905 spectra of the planet revealed the presence of gases that absorb strongly at red and infrared wavelengths; thirty years later these were identified as ammonia and methane. These two poisonous gases are the simplest chemical compounds of hydrogen combined with nitrogen and carbon, respectively. In the atmosphere of Earth they are not stable, because oxygen, which is highly active chemically, destroys them. The existence of methane and ammonia on Jupiter demonstrated that free oxygen could not be present and that the atmosphere was dominated by hydrogenΓÇöa reducing, rather than oxidizing, condition. Subsequently, hydrogen was identified spectroscopically. Although much more abundant than methane or ammonia, hydrogen is harder to detect.* In the 1940s and 1950s the German American astronomer Rupert Wildt used all the available data to derive a picture of Jupiter that is still generally accepted. He noted that both the low total density and the observed presence of hydrogen-rich compounds in the atmosphere were consistent with a bulk composition similar to that of the Sun and stars. This "cosmic composition" is dominated by the two simplest elements, hydrogen and helium, which together make up nearly 99 percent of all the material in the universe. Wildt hypothesized that the giant planets, because of their large size, had succeeded in retaining this primordial composition, whereas the hydrogen and helium had escaped from the smaller inner planets. He also used his knowledge of the properties of hydrogen and helium to calculate what the interior structure of Jupiter might be like, concluding that the planet is mostly liquid or gas. Wildt suggested that there probably was a core of solid material deep in the interior, but that much of Jupiter is fluidΓÇöextremely viscous and compressed deep below the visible atmosphere, but still not solid. The atmosphere seen from above is just the thin, topmost layer of an ocean of gases thousands of kilometers thick.</text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) JupiterBeyond Mars and the asteroid belt, in the outer regions of our solar system, lie the giant planets of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. In 1972, NASA dispatched the first of four spacecraft slated to conduct the initial surveys of these colossal worlds of gas and their moons of ice and rock. Jupiter was the first port of call.Pioneer 10, which lifted off from Kennedy Space Center in March 1972, was the first spacecraft to penetrate the asteroid belt and travel to the outer regions of the solar system. In December 1973, it returned the first close-up images of Jupiter, flying within 132,252 kilometers (82,178 miles) of the planet's banded cloud tops. Pioneer 11 followed a year later. Voyagers 1 and 2 were launched in the summer of 1977 and returned spectacular photographs of Jupiter and its family of satellites during flybys in 1979.These travelers found Jupiter to be a whirling ball of liquid hydrogen and helium, topped with a colorful atmosphere composed mostly of gaseous hydrogen and helium. Ammonia ice crystals form white jovian clouds. Sulfur compounds (and perhaps phosphorus) may produce the brown and orange hues that characterize Jupiter's atmosphere.It is likely that methane, ammonia, water and other gases react to form organic molecules in the regions between the planet's frigid cloud tops and the warmer hydrogen ocean lying below. Because of Jupiter's atmospheric dynamics, however, these organic compounds, if they exist, are probably short-lived.The Great Red Spot has been observed for centuries through telescopes on Earth. This hurricane-like storm in Jupiter's atmosphere is more than twice the size of our planet. As a high-pressure region, the Great Red Spot spins in a direction opposite to that of low-pressure storms on Jupiter; it is surrounded by swirling currents that rotate around the spot and are sometimes consumed by it. The Great Red Spot might be a million years old.Our spacecraft detected lightning in Jupiter's upper atmosphere and observed auroral emissions similar to Earth's northern lights at the jovian polar regions. Voyager 1 returned the first images of a faint, narrow ring encircling Jupiter.Largest of the solar system's planets, Jupiter rotates at a dizzying pace, once every 9 hours 55 minutes 30 seconds. The massive planet takes almost 12 Earth years to complete a journey around the Sun. With 16 known moons, Jupiter is something of a miniature solar system.A new mission to Jupiter, the Galileo Project, is under way. After a six-year cruise that takes the Galileo Orbiter once past Venus, twice past Earth and the Moon and once past two asteroids, the spacecraft will drop an atmospheric probe into Jupiter's cloud layers and relay data back to Earth. The Galileo Orbiter will spend two years circling the planet and flying close to Jupiter's large moons, exploring in detail what the two Pioneers and two Voyagers revealed.</text>
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<text>(Bevan M. French and Stephen P. Maran, eds., "A Meeting with the Universe," NASA EP-177, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.) * According to a theory formulated in 1958, the interior of Jupiter includes a large core of metallic hydrogen.* Pioneer 10, in 1973, and Pioneer 11, in 1974, made the first flybys of Jupiter; both spacecraft survived passage through the asteroid belt and through the Jovian trapped radiation. Among the findings from these spacecraft were the following:ΓÇó Aside from its polar flattening, Jupiter is very symmetrical and has no gravitational anomalies; it behaves like a liquid planet.ΓÇó Jupiter is slightly more massive than had been indicated from ground-based observations.ΓÇó As suggested from ground-based measurements, Jupiter emits twice as much energy as it receives from the Sun.ΓÇó The temperature at the center of the planet may be 30,000┬░ C.The Atmosphere* From ground-based studies, it was deduced that the atmosphere of Jupiter must consist mostly of hydrogen and helium, in an approximately 2 to 1 ratio. The bright bands in the atmosphere ("zones") are cooler than the dark ones ("belts").* A theory proposed in 1986 interprets the Great Red Spot as the top of a rotating column in the atmosphere.* Among the results of the Pioneer 10 and 11 missions wereΓÇó The general banded structure of the Jovian atmosphere is not present near the poles; there, oval circulation patterns develop.ΓÇó At the poles, a thick, aerosol-free, or "blue sky," atmosphere was found.ΓÇó The bright zones consist of rising cloud masses at higher altitudes, while the belts are descending masses that allow a deeper view into the atmosphere.ΓÇó Two cloud layers are present; the thick, low cloud deck is topped by a thinner, clearer region.ΓÇó Detailed study showed rapid motions among the clouds and changes in the wind speeds.ΓÇó Bright plumes of warm material were observed rising from deep in the atmosphere.ΓÇó Changes in the flow patterns of the Great Red Spot were observed between 1973 and 1974; the Great Red Spot and other features were interpreted as hurricane-like storms.ΓÇó Helium was detected, confirming the earlier deduction of the Jovian atmospheric composition.* Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 flew past Jupiter and its moons in 1979; among the findings from this pair of spacecraft wereΓÇó Eruptions of warmer material from below are signalled by brightenings followed by cloud spreading.ΓÇó Along the boundaries of the belts and zones, there occur atmospheric jet streams, plumes, and extensive turbulence.ΓÇó There is actual mass movement, rather than simply wave motions, in the Jovian atmosphere.ΓÇó An east-west wind structure is present in the polar regions.ΓÇó The Great Red Spot rotates counterclockwise in about 6 days, as estimated from ground-based observations.ΓÇó The fraction of helium by volume in the Jovian atmosphere is 0.11.ΓÇó Aurorae were discovered in the polar regions and are related to the magnetic field lines and currents between Jupiter and its moons.ΓÇó Lightning "superbolts" were detected in the cloud tops.ΓÇó There is intense ultraviolet emission from the atmosphere.* Minor components of the Jovian atmosphere that have been detected at various times include deuterium (heavy hydrogen) compounds; organic molecules such as ethane and acetylene; water vapor (found using the Kuiper Airborne Observatory in 1975); carbon monoxide; phosphine (PH3); and germane (GeH4).The Magnetic Field and Trapped Radiation of Jupiter*The discovery of naturally generated radio bursts from Jupiter was accomplished with a ground-based radio telescope in 1955. Theory indicated that a strong magnetic field must be present in order to account for the bursts, and additional radio observations showed that the occurrence of many bursts is related to the position of the Jovian moon Io.*Among the findings of Pioneer 10 and 11 wereΓÇó The magnetic field was detected and found to be huge. The bow shock of the Jovian magnetosphere had a measured width of 26 million kilometers (16 million miles). The Jovian magnetic tail extends to beyond the orbit of Saturn. If the magnetosphere were visible in the sky from Earth, it would appear larger than the Sun or Moon.ΓÇó The Jovian magnetic field is l0 times stronger than Earth's and contains 20,000 times as much energy.ΓÇó The axis of the magnetic field is tilted 11 degrees from the Jovian rotation axis and is offset from the center of Jupiter in a manner similar to the axis of the Earth's field.ΓÇó The Jovian magnetic field has the"north" magnetic pole is at the south pole of Jupiter.ΓÇó The magnetic field fluctuates rapidly in size on the sunward side of Jupiter because of pressure variations in the solar wind, an effect studied in further detail by the two Voyager spacecraft.ΓÇó Energetic protons were found and measured in the Jovian radiation belt.ΓÇó It was discovered that streams of high-energy atomic particles are ejected from the Jovian magnetosphere and travel as far as the orbit of the Earth.ΓÇó Electric currents were detected flowing between Jupiter and some of its moons, particularly Io.* Among the findings of Voyager 1 and 2 wereΓÇó Within the Jovian magnetosphere is a huge sheet of plasma (a gas of electrically charged atomic particles), 4.8 million kilometers (3 million miles) in diameter. The plasma sheet rotates along with Jupiter and its magnetic field.ΓÇó Some of the magnetospheric plasma has a remarkably high temperature, in the millions of degrees. Among the high energy particles in the plasma are ions of hydrogen, sulfur, and oxygen.ΓÇó A sulfur-rich plasma, which was not present in 1973, was detected near Io, with a temperature of about 100,000┬░ C.ΓÇó The electrical current between Jupiter and Io was measured at about 5 million amperes.ΓÇó It was found that radio emissions may be generated in the plasma nearThe Moons and Ring of Jupiter* Ground-based studies of the jovian moons in the 1970's revealed the presence of two additional small moons and the existence of water ice on the surfaces of the three outermost Galilean satellites, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.* Findings about the jovian satellites from Pioneer 10 and 11 included:ΓÇó The two outermost Galilean moons, Ganymede and Callisto, are less dense than the Earth's Moon.ΓÇó Io was found to be 28 percent more massive than had been calculated from groundbased observations and to be 1.22 times more massive than our Moon.ΓÇó A thin atmosphere, about 1/20,000 of the density of Earth's atmosphere and extending to about 115 kilometers (70 miles) above the surface was discovered on Io.ΓÇó A cloud of sodium vapor around Io and its orbit, detected from the ground, was detected and found to be immersed in a cloud of hydrogen as well.Results of the Voyager 1 and 2 missions included:ΓÇó Three additional moons were discovered.ΓÇó Amalthea, the small inner moon of Jupiter, was found to have an elliptical shape. In effect it is a big rock, about 265 x 140 kilometers (165 x 87 miles) in size.ΓÇó Volcanic eruptions were discovered on Io, the first evidence of active volcanism found outside the Earth. The volcanism is probably induced by tidal heating. The erupted plumes extend up to 320 kilometers (200 miles) above the surface, and the volcanic activity varies over times of a few months.ΓÇó A hot spot on Io, 150┬░ C warmer than the rest of the surface, and associated with volcanic features, was discovered.ΓÇó Europa was found to be a world of essentially flat terrain, with virtually no topographic relief. It is marked by intersecting linear features, not cracks, and the surface is very young, as indicated by the lack of impact craters.ΓÇó Both cratered and grooved terrains are present on Ganymede; the icy crust of this moon appears to have been globally deformed.ΓÇó Ganymede was found to produce distinct disturbances in the jovian magnetic field and trapped radiation belts as far as 200,000 kilometers (124,000 miles) away.ΓÇó Callisto's crust is ancient and heavily cratered, with large impact basins.ΓÇó A ring around Jupiter was discovered inside the orbit of the innermost moon. It apparently extends down to the top of the jovian atmosphere. </text>
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<text>(Bill Yenne, "The Atlas of the Solar System," Brompton Books Corp., Greenwich, 1987, pp. 176-177.) * Johann Elert Bode (1747-1826), a German astronomer is credited with discovering the Asteroid Belt through theoretical means while he worked at the Berlin Observatory. He developed a law in 1772, Bode's Law, which predicted the presence of a planet between Mars and Jupiter on the basis of the regular intervals between the known planets. It is remarkable that what Bode predicted may explain the cause of the Asteroid Belt, fragments of a planet that had broken into thousands of smaller bodies. * The largest of the asteroids was discovered in 1801 (January first) by Giuseppe Piazzi (1746-1826). This asteroid is known as Ceres and has a diameter of 1,003 meters (621.86 miles).* There were 2,000 known asteroids in 1980, but more than 30,000 are now predicted. The sixteen largest range in size from 1,000 kilometers to 142 kilometers.</text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) AsteroidsThe solar system has a large number of rocky and metallic objects that are in orbit around the Sun but are too small to be considered full-fledged planets. These objects are known as asteroids or minor planets. Most, but not all, are found in a band or belt between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Some have orbits that cross Earth's path, and there is evidence that Earth has been hit by asteroids in the past. One of the least eroded, best preserved examples of this is the Barringer Meteor Crater near Winslow, Arizona.Asteroids are material left over from the formation of the solar system. One theory suggests that they are the remains of a planet that was destroyed in a massive collision long ago. More likely, asteroids are material that never coalesced into a planet. In fact, if the estimated total mass of all asteroids was gathered into a single object, the object would be only about 1,500 kilometers (932 miles) acrossΓÇöless than half the diameter of our Moon.Thousands of asteroids have been identified from Earth. It is estimated that 100,000 are bright enough to eventually be photographed through Earth-based telescopes.Much of our understanding about asteroids comes from examining pieces of space debris that fall to the surface of Earth. Asteroids that are on a collision course with Earth are called meteoroids. When a meteoroid strikes our atmosphere at high velocity, friction causes this chunk of space matter to incinerate in a streak of light known as a meteor. If the meteoroid does not burn up completely, what's left strikes Earth's surface and is called a meteorite. One of the best places to look for meteorites is the ice cap of Antarctica.Of all the meteorites examined, 92.8 percent are composed of silicate (stone), and 5.7 percent are composed of iron and nickel; the rest are a mixture of the three materials. Stony meteorites are the hardest to identify since they look very much like terrestrial rocks.Since asteroids are material from the very early solar system, scientists are interested in their composition. Spacecraft that have flown through the asteroid belt have found that the belt is really quite empty and that asteroids are separated by very large distances.Current and future missions will fly by selected asteroids for closer examination. The Galileo Orbiter, launched by NASA in October 1989, will investigate main-belt asteroids on its way to Jupiter. The Comet Rendezvous/Asteroid Flyby (CRAF) and Cassini missions will also study these far-flung objects. Scheduled for launch in the latter part of the 1990s, the CRAF and Cassini missions are a collaborative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the federal space agencies of Germany and Italy, as well as the United States Air Force and the Department of Energy. One day, space factories will mine the asteroids for raw materials.</text>
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<text> PHOBOS* Phobos is the largest of the two Mars satellites with dimensions of 20 x 23 x 28 kilometers.("Stars and Planets," p. 41.)* It was Johannes Kepler who forecast the two satellites' existence in the year 1610, but actual confirmation that they existed did not come until the year 1877 when Asaph Hall discovered them.("Planets," p. 76.) DEIMOS* Deimos is the smaller of the two satellites of Mars, with dimensions of 10 x 12 x 16 kilometers.("Stars and Planets," p. 41.)* The gravity of Deimos (and Phobos) is virtually zero. Both the satellites are more like asteroids than planet-like entities. ("The Planets," p. 77.) </text>
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<text>(Patrick Moore and Garry Hunt, "The Atlas of the Solar System," Crescent Books, New York, 1990,p. 214.)* Galileo first observed Mars through a telescope in the year 1610.* It was Christian Huygens who drew sketches of Mars, which for the first time were useful to astronomy (1659).* Through his telescopic observations, Huygens deduced that the rotation period of Mars was approximately 24 hours. * The polar icecaps of Mars were discovered in 1666 by an Italian astronomer Cassini. * In the later 1700s (1777-1783) William Herschel studied Mars and concluded the axial inclination of the planet was 23.98 degrees about the same inclination as the Earth's axis which is 23.44 degrees.* Canals were associated with Mars since the Italian G. V. Schiaparelli charted what he thought to be "canali" in 1877. * In 1895, Percival Lowell (Flagstaff, Arizona Observatory) elaborated on the canals speculating the "canali" to be a complex Martian built irrigation system derived from the melt of the Martian polar ice.* But it was Antoniadi who accurately foresaw the "canali" as simply optical illusions.* The Mariner 4 planetary spacecraft put to rest the canal argument in 1965 when the craft became the first successful probe of the planet. Mariner found no canals but discovered an atmosphere composed of primarily carbon dioxide gas. Additionally, Mariner 4 flyby revealed a topography much more like the Earth's moon than Earth. (See "NASA Pocket Statistics" stack for additional space probes of Mars and their findings.) </text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) MarsOf all the planets, Mars has long been considered the solar system's prime candidate for harboring extraterrestrial life. Astronomers studying the red planet through telescopes saw what appeared to be straight lines crisscrossing its surface. These observationsΓÇölater determined to be optical illusionsΓÇöled to the popular notion that intelligent beings had constructed a system of irrigation canals on the planet. In 1938, when Orson Welles broadcast a radio drama based on the science fiction classic War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, enough people believed in the tale of invading martians to cause a near panic.Another reason for scientists to expect life on Mars had to do with the apparent seasonal color changes on the planet's surface. This phenomenon led to speculation that conditions might support a bloom of martian vegetation during the warmer months and cause plant life to become dormant during colder periods.So far, six American missions to Mars have been carried out. Four Mariner spacecraft, three flying by the planet and one placed into martian orbit, surveyed the planet extensively before the Viking Orbiters and Landers arrived.Mariner 4, launched in late 1964, flew past Mars on July 14, 1965, within 9,846 kilometers (6,118 miles) of the surface. Transmitting to Earth 22 close-up pictures of the planet, the spacecraft found many craters and naturally occurring channels but no evidence of artificial canals or flowing water. Mariners 6 and 7 followed with their flybys during the summer of 1969 and returned 201 pictures. Mariners 4, 6 and 7 showed a diversity of surface conditions as well as a thin, cold, dry atmosphere of carbon dioxide.On May 30, 1971, the Mariner 9 Orbiter was launched on a mission to make a year-long study of the martian surface. The spacecraft arrived five and a half months after liftoff, only to find Mars in the midst of a planet-wide dust storm that made surface photography impossible for several weeks. But after the storm cleared, Mariner 9 began returning the first of 7,329 pictures; these revealed previously unknown martian features, including evidence that large amounts of water once flowed across the surface, etching river valleys and flood plains.In August and September 1975, the Viking 1 and 2 spacecraft, each consisting of an orbiter and a lander, lifted off from Kennedy Space Center. The mission was designed to answer several questions about the red planet, including, is there life there? Nobody expected the spacecraft to spot martian cities, but it was hoped that the biology experiments on the Viking Landers would at least find evidence of primitive lifeΓÇöpast or present.Viking Lander 1 became the first spacecraft to successfully touch down on another planet when it landed on July 20, 1976, while the United States was celebrating its Bicentennial. Photographs sent back from Chryse Planitia ("Plains of Gold") showed a bleak, rusty-red landscape. Panoramic images returned by Viking Lander 1 revealed a rolling plain, littered with rocks and marked by rippled sand dunes. Fine red dust from the martian soil gives the sky a salmon hue. When Viking Lander 2 touched down on Utopia Planitia on September 3, 1976, it viewed a more rolling landscape than the one seen by its predecessor, one without visible dunes.The results sent back by the laboratory on each Viking Lander were inconclusive. Small samples of the red martian soil were tested in three different experiments designed to detect biological processes. While some of the test results seemed to indicate biological activity, later analysis confirmed that this activity was inorganic in nature and related to the planet's soil chemistry. Is there life on Mars? No one knows for sure, but the Viking mission found no evidence that organic molecules exist there.The Viking Landers became weather stations, recording wind velocity and direction as well as atmospheric temperature and pressure. Few weather changes were observed. The highest temperature recorded by either spacecraft was -14 degrees Celsius (7 degrees Fahrenheit) at the Viking Lander 1 site in midsummer.The lowest temperature, -120 degrees Celsius (-184 degrees Fahrenheit), was recorded at the more northerly Viking Lander 2 site during winter. Near-hurricane wind speeds were measured at the two martian weather stations during global dust storms, but because the atmosphere is so thin, wind force is minimal. Viking Lander 2 photographed light patches of frost, probably water-ice, during its second winter on the planet.The martian atmosphere, like that of Venus, is primarily carbon dioxide. Nitrogen and oxygen are present only in small percentages. Martian air contains only about 1/1,000 as much water as our air, but even this small amount can condense out, forming clouds that ride high in the atmosphere or swirl around the slopes of towering volcanoes. Local patches of early morning fog can form in valleys.There is evidence that in the past a denser martian atmosphere may have allowed water to flow on the planet. Physical features closely resembling shorelines, gorges, riverbeds and islands suggest that great rivers once marked the planet.Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos. They are small and irregularly shaped and possess ancient, cratered surfaces. It is possible the moons were originally asteroids that ventured too close to Mars and were captured by its gravity.The Viking Orbiters and Landers exceeded by large margins their design lifetimes of 120 and 90 days, respectively. The first to fail was Viking Orbiter 2, which stopped operating on July 24, 1978, when a leak depleted its attitude-control gas. Viking Lander 2 operated until April 12, 1980, when it was shut down due to battery degeneration. Viking Orbiter 1 quit on August 7, 1980, when the last of its attitude-control gas was used up. Viking Lander 1 ceased functioning on November 13, 1983.Despite the inconclusive results of the Viking biology experiments, we know more about Mars than any other planet except Earth. NASA's Mars Observer spacecraft, to be launched in September 1992, will expand our knowledge of the martian environment and lead to human exploration of the red planet. </text>
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<text>(Bevan M. French and Stephen P. Maran, eds., "A Meeting with the Universe," NASA EP-177, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.) * Mars ground-based observations detected water vapor on Mars in 1964.* Mariner 4 flew past Mars in 1965 and photographed a heavily cratered, moonlike surface.* Mariner 4 found that the Martian atmosphere is thin, with less than 1 percent the pressure of the Earth's atmosphere, and is composed largely of carbon dioxide.* The Mariner 6 and 7 flybys took place in 1969. Instruments on these spacecraft found that nitrogen is virtually absent from the atmosphere and that solid carbon dioxide ("dry ice") occurs in the clouds and near the polar caps.* Mariner 6 and 7 found that the dust particles in the Martian atmosphere probably consist of silicate materials derived from the planetary surface.* The first soft landing on Mars was executed by the USSR Mars 3 spacecraft in 1971; the spacecraft ceased operating 20 seconds after the landing.* Mariner 9 became the first Mars-orbiting spacecraft in 1971. It obtained over 7300 photographs. Among the results of this mission wereΓÇó Mars is actually a two-part world, with an ancient cratered surface in the Southern Hemisphere and a geologically younger surface, with volcanoes, canyons, and dry river channels, in the Northern Hemisphere.ΓÇó The Martian volcanoes include a few huge ones, rising to heights of as much as 25 kilometers (16 miles), with freshlooking lava flows.ΓÇó Mars has a huge valley (Vallis Marineris), about 5000 kilometers (over 3000 miles) long.ΓÇó Sinuous channels, with braided and streamlined formations, appear to be former river beds.ΓÇó Landforms resembling lava flows occur in flat regions.ΓÇó There are layered deposits in the Martian polar regions, perhaps indicating glacial periods in past times.ΓÇó Solar ultraviolet light is not absorbed by the atmosphere and hence reaches the surface of Mars.ΓÇó Periodic global dust storms were observed in detail.ΓÇó The two small moons of Mars were photographed and found to be very dark and to have irregular shapes and cratered surfaces.* The Viking 1 and 2 landers and orbiters reached Mars in 1976. Among their many findings wereΓÇó The highly oxidized soil produced unique chemical reactions in the life detection instruments (see Appendix section on Exobiology).ΓÇó The reddish color of the soil is due to oxidized iron.ΓÇó The soil is fine-grained and cohesive, like firm sand or soil on Earth.ΓÇó The surface rocks resemble basalt lava, and the soil chemistry is like that of weathered, altered basalt.ΓÇó There are water and sulfur compounds in the soil.ΓÇó The sky is not blue but pink, its color caused by fine suspended particles of red dust.ΓÇó The polar caps are largely made of water ice.ΓÇó The winds at the surface of Mars are light, about 24 kilometers per hour ( 15 miles per hour).ΓÇó The surface temperature ranges from about -84┬░ C (-120┬░ F) at night to -29┬░ C (-20┬░ F) in the afternoon.ΓÇó Fog and clouds occur despite the fact that the water content of the atmosphere is less than 0.1 percent that of the air on Earth.ΓÇó The surface pressure of the atmoshere, only about 0.8 percent that of the Earth's atmosphere, varies seasonally in accord with the evaporation of the polar caps.ΓÇó The isotopic ratios of carbon and oxygen in the Martian atmosphere resemble those of the Earth's atmosphere.ΓÇó The atmosphere has been modified over time by the escape of nitrogen to space; this has produced nitrogen isotopic ratios that differ from those on Earth.ΓÇó Mars may have had a much denser atmosphere in the past, and could have had liquid water on its surface.ΓÇó The abundances of rare gases such as argon and neon suggest that Mars has a lower volatile content than either the Earth or Venus.ΓÇó The Martian moons are grooved, indicating that fracturing may have occured; they may be asteroids that were captured by Mars.(The following is from "The Solar System," NASA/ASEP, 1989, p. 6.)* Mars is the Roman god of war.* This planet has a red color to it.* Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun.* Mars has two moons, Phobos, 16.7 miles in diameter and Deimos, 9.3 miles in diameter.* Mars travels around the Sun every 687 Earth days.* One Martian day is 24 hours and 37 minutes long.* Mars' gravity is about one-third (.38) that of Earth.* The diameter of Mars is 4,212 miles.* There have been six U.S. missions to the planet Mars.* The first American soft landing on the surface of another planet was on July 20, 1976, by the Viking spacecraft.* There are strong winds (200-300 mph) on the surface of Mars.* The high and low surface temperature at Vikings 1 and 2 landing sites ranged from -17┬░ F(maximum high) to-191┬░ F (maximum low).* Evidence indicates that there was surface water on Mars in the past.* Mars' atmosphere is primarily carbon dioxide (thin).* The planet has ice caps of frozen carbon dioxide(dry ice).* The long valley on Mars' surface, Valles Marineris, is 3,100 miles long and 310 miles across.* Mars' high mountain, Olympus Mons, has a base the size of Missouri.* Mars has a rocky interior that's low in metal (iron sulfide).* Is there life on Mars? </text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) The MoonThe Moon is Earth's single natural satellite. The first human footsteps on an alien world were made by American astronauts on the dusty surface of our airless, lifeless companion. In preparation for the human-crewed Apollo expeditions, NASA dispatched the automated Ranger, Surveyor and Lunar Orbiter spacecraft to study the Moon between 1964 and 1968.NASA's Apollo program left a large legacy of lunar materials and data. Six two-astronaut crews landed on and explored the lunar surface between 1969 and 1972, carrying back a collection of rocks and soil weighing a total of 382 kilograms (842 pounds) and consisting of more than 2,000 separate samples.From this material and other studies, scientists have constructed a history of the Moon that includes its infancy. Rocks collected from the lunar highlands date to about 4.0 - 4.3 billion years old. The first few million years of the Moon's existence were so violent that few traces of this period remain. As a molten outer layer gradually cooled and solidified into different kinds of rock, the Moon was bombarded by huge asteroids and smaller objects. Some of the asteroids were as large as Rhode Island or Delaware, and their collisions with the Moon created basins hundreds of kilometers across.This catastrophic bombardment tapered off approximately four billion years ago, leaving the lunar highlands covered with huge, overlapping craters and a deep layer of shattered and broken rock. Heat produced by the decay of radioactive elements began to melt the interior of the Moon at depths of about 200 kilometers (125 miles) below the surface. Then, for the next 700 million yearsΓÇöfrom about 3.8 to 3.1 billion years agoΓÇölava rose from inside the Moon. The lava gradually spread out over the surface, flooding the large impact basins to form the dark areas that Galileo Galilei, an astronomer of the Italian Renaissance, called maria, meaning seas.As far as we can tell, there has been no significant volcanic activity on the Moon for more than three billion years. Since then, the lunar surface has been altered only by micrometeorites, by the atomic particles from the Sun and stars, by the rare impacts of large meteorites and by spacecraft and astronauts. If our astronauts had landed on the Moon a billion years ago, they would have seen a landscape very similar to the one today. Thousands of years from now, the footsteps left by the Apollo crews will remain sharp and clear.The origin of the Moon is still a mystery. Four theories attempt an explanation: the Moon formed near Earth as a separate body; it was torn from Earth; it formed somewhere else and was captured by our planet's gravity, or it was the result of a collision between Earth and an asteroid about the size of Mars. The last theory has some good support but is far from certain.</text>
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<text>(NASA, "The Solar System," ASEP, 1989, p. 4.)* First spacecraft impact on the Moon: Luna 1(USSR), 1959.* Discovery that the lunar farside consists almost entirely of highland regions, with no maria (large dark basins): Luna 3, 1959.* Investigation of the details of the lunar surface by the U.S. Ranger 7, 8, and 9 spacecraft in 1964-1965 revealed a gently rolling terrain with no sharp relief; there is a layer of powdery rubble, with rocks and craters down to at least one meter in diameter everywhere.* Diana, or Luna, is the Roman goddess of the Moon, animals, and hunting.* The Moon is the Earth's natural satellite.* The Moon's average distance from the Earth is 238,328 miles.* The Moon has only one-sixth of the Earth's gravity.* The Moon's diameter is 2,155 miles.* The Moon's surface is either hot or cold.* The Moon has no magnetic field.* The Moon has light and dark areas (highlands and seas).* Huge meteorites bombarded the Moon's surface and left hundreds of thousands of impact craters. * The Moon passes through phases as it travels around the Earth.* Human beings have landed six times (12 men) on the Moon.* Eight hundred and forty-two pounds of rock and soil samples have been returned from the Moon.* No life, no water, and no oxygen have been found on the Moon.* The Moon has also been studied by the unmanned Ranger, Surveyor, Lunar Orbiter and Russian Luna landings.* High and low tides on Earth's oceans are affected by the Moon's gravitational pull.* The question "Where did the Moon come from?" has not been answered. </text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) EarthAt speeds reaching as high as 360 kilometers (225 miles) per hour, the clouds circle the planet in only four Earth days. The circulation is in the same directionΓÇöwest to eastΓÇöas Venus' slow rotation of 243 Earth days, whereas Earth's winds blow in both directionsΓÇöwest to east and east to westΓÇöin six alternating bands. Venus' atmosphere serves as a simplified laboratory for the study of our weather.As viewed from space, our world's distinguishing characteristics are its blue waters, brown and green land masses and white clouds. We are enveloped by an ocean of air consisting of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and 1 percent other constituents. The only planet in the solar system known to harbor life, Earth orbits the Sun at an average distance of 150 million kilometers (93 million miles). Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest in the solar system, with a diameter just a few hundred kilometers larger than that of Venus.Our planet's rapid spin and molten nickel-iron core give rise to an extensive magnetic field, which, along with the atmosphere, shields us from nearly all of the harmful radiation coming from the Sun and other stars. Earth's atmosphere protects us from meteors as well, most of which burn up before they can strike the surface. Active geological processes have left no evidence of the pelting Earth almost certainly received soon after it formedΓÇöabout 4.6 billion years ago. Along with the other newly formed planets, it was showered by space debris in the early days of the solar system.From our journeys into space, we have learned much about our home planet. The first American satellite, Explorer 1, was launched from Cape Canaveral in Florida on January 31, 1958, and discovered an intense radiation zone, now called the Van Allen radiation belts, surrounding Earth.Since then, other research satellites have revealed that our planet's magnetic field is distorted into a tear-drop shape by the solar wind, the stream of charged particles continuously ejected from the Sun. We've learned that the magnetic field does not fade off into space but has definite boundaries. And we now know that our wispy upper atmosphere, once believed calm and uneventful, seethes with activity, swelling by day and contracting by night. Affected by changes in solar activity, the upper atmosphere contributes to weather and climate on Earth.Besides affecting Earth's weather, solar activity gives rise to a dramatic visual phenomenon in our atmosphere. When charged particles from the solar wind become trapped in Earth's magnetic field, they collide with air molecules above our planet's magnetic poles. These air molecules then begin to glow and are known as the auroras or the northern and southern lights.Satellites about 35,789 kilometers (22,238 miles) out in space play a major role in daily local weather forecasting. These watchful electronic eyes warn us of dangerous storms. Continuous global monitoring provides a vast amount of useful data and contributes to a better understanding of Earth's complex weather systems.From their unique vantage points, satellites can survey Earth's oceans, land use and resources, and monitor the planet's health. These eyes in space have saved countless lives, provided tremendous conveniences and shown us that we may be altering our planet in dangerous ways.</text>
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<text>(NASA, "The Solar System," ASEP, 1989, p. 4.) * The planet is inhabited with plant, animal, and human life.* The Earth goddess of the ancient Greeks was called Terre Mater, Earth Mother, by the Romans.* Earth is the place where we live.* This is the only planet on which we know there is life.* Earth is the third planet from the Sun.* Earth has one moon.* As seen from space, the Earth has a blue and white color.* Over 70% of the planet's surface is covered by water.* Earth's atmosphere is 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, and 1 percent other gases.* Earth has a strong magnetic field.* Earth has a nickel-iron core.* There is some volcanic activity on this planet.* The Earth circles the Sun every 365 days.* A day on Earth is 23 hours and 56 minutes long.* Earth's diameter is 7,909 miles.* Earth's average distance from the Sun is 93 million miles.* This planet tilts 23.5┬░ on its axis, causing seasonal changes.* Earth has a changing weather pattern.* Earth consists of three layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core.* This planet is covered with several mountain ranges.* This planet has five continents.* The Van Allen Radiation Belt is an intense radiation zone.</text>
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<text>(Bill Yenne, "The Atlas of the Solar System," Brompton Books Corp., Greenwich, 1987, p. 33.)* Venus was spoken of by the Greek poet Homer and the Romans who named it for their goddess of beauty, Venus.* It was the Astronometer Giovanni Cassini (1625-1712) who sketched the first known drawing of Venus' surface features in 1667. Of course these features would quickly change as he was only seeing clouds which moved. * In the early 1900s most astronomers believed Venus' surface features were obscured by cloud cover.* Mariner 2 passed within 21,600 miles of Venus in December of 1962 and discovered much about Venus' atmosphere and the planet's surface temperature.</text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) VenusVeiled by dense cloud cover, Venus, our nearest planetary neighbor, was the first planet to be explored. The Mariner 2 spacecraft, launched on August 27, 1962, was the first of more than a dozen successful American and Soviet missions to study the mysterious planet. As spacecraft flew by or orbited Venus, plunged into the atmosphere or gently landed on Venus' surface, romantic myths and speculations about our neighbor were laid to rest.On December 14, 1962, Mariner 2 passed within 34,839 kilometers (21,648 miles) of Venus and became the first spacecraft to scan another planet; on-board instruments measured Venus for 42 minutes. Mariner 5 launched in June 1967, flew much closer to the planet. Passing within 4,094 kilometers (2,544 miles) of Venus on the second American flyby, Mariner 5's instruments measured the planet's magnetic field, ionosphere, radiation belts and temperatures. On its way to Mercury, Mariner 10 flew by Venus and transmitted ultraviolet pictures to Earth showing cloud circulation patterns in the Venusian atmosphere.In the spring and summer of 1978, two spacecraft were launched to further unravel the mysteries of Venus. On December 4 of the same year, one of these travelersΓÇöthe Pioneer Venus OrbiterΓÇöbecame the first spacecraft placed in orbit around the planet.Five days later, the five separate components making up the second spacecraftΓÇöthe Pioneer Venus MultiprobeΓÇöentered the Venusian atmosphere at different locations above the planet. The four small, independent probes and the main body radioed atmospheric data back to Earth during their descent toward the surface. Although designed to examine the atmosphere, one of the probes survived its impact with the surface and continued to transmit data for another hour.Venus resembles Earth in size, physical composition and density more closely than any other known planet. However, spacecraft have discovered significant differences as well. For example, Venus' rotation (west to east) is retrograde (backward) compared to the east-to-west spin of Earth and most of the other planets.Approximately 96.5 percent of Venus' atmosphere (95 times as dense as Earth's) is carbon dioxide. The principal constituent of Earth's atmosphere is nitrogen. Venus' atmosphere acts like a greenhouse, permitting solar radiation to reach the surface but trapping the heat that would ordinarily be radiated back into space. As a result, the planet's average surface temperature is 482 degrees Celsius (900 degrees Fahrenheit), hot enough to melt lead.A radio altimeter on the Pioneer Venus Orbiter provided the first means of seeing through the planet's dense cloud cover and determining surface features over almost the entire planet. NASA's Magellan spacecraft, launched on May 5, 1989, has orbited Venus since August 10, 1990. The spacecraft uses radar-mapping techniques to provide ultrahigh-resolution images of the surface.Magellan has revealed a landscape dominated by volcanic features, faults and impact craters. Huge areas of the surface show evidence of multiple periods of lava flooding with flows lying on top of previous ones. An elevated region named Ishtar Terra is a lava-filled basin as large as the United States. At one end of this plateau sits Maxwell Montes, a mountain the size of Mount Everest. Scarring the mountain's flank is a 100-kilometer (62-mile) wide, 2.5-kilometer (1.5-mile) deep impact crater named Cleopatra. (Almost all features on Venus are named for women; Maxwell Montes, Alpha Regio and Beta Regio are the exceptions.) Craters survive on Venus for perhaps 400 million years because there is no water and very little wind erosion.Extensive fault-line networks cover the planet, probably the result of the same crustal flexing that produces plate tectonics on Earth. But on Venus the surface temperature is sufficient to weaken the rock, which cracks just about everywhere, preventing the formation of major plates and large earthquake faults like the San Andreas Fault in California.Venus' predominant weather pattern is a high-altitude, high-speed circulation of clouds that contain sulfuric acid.</text>
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<text>(Bevan M. French and Stephen P. Maran, eds., "A Meeting with the Universe," NASA EP-177, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.) * Venus ground-based radar measurements in the early and mid-1960s showed that the rotation period of Venus is about 240 days and that the rotation is retrograde, so that it spins in the opposite sense with respect to the Earth.* The 1962 flyby of Venus by Mariner 2 led to an accurate determination of the planet's mass. This spacecraft, and ground-based observations, also measured high temperatures, around 300┬░ C, in the atmosphere of Venus.* Ground-based observations detected various minor components of the Venus atmosphere, including the gases hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid (1967), carbon monoxide (1968), water(1972), and sulfuric acid (1978). In 1973, it was found that the upper cloud layer is composed of sulfuric acid droplets.* From the USSR's Venera 7 in 1970, it was found that the atmosphere is largely carbon dioxide, with a pressure at the planetary surface about 100 times that of the Earth's atmosphere. Venera 7 also measured a surface temperature of about 500┬░ C.* Mariner 10 flew past Venus in 1974. Among the results wereΓÇó Venus has no significant magnetic field.ΓÇó A notable disturbance in the solar wind is produced as it flows past Venus.ΓÇó Venus is closer to a perfect sphere than the Earth.ΓÇó Ultraviolet images of the atmosphere revealed streamline and circulation patterns, including Y- and C-shaped structures.ΓÇó The upper atmosphere was found to rotate much more rapidly (once in about 4 Earth days) than Venus itself, a result also suggested by ground-based measurements.ΓÇó Hydrogen and helium were detected in the atmosphere.*In 1975, the Venera 9 and 10 lander spacecraft found that the surface of the planet is firm and rocky. Their other results includedΓÇó The measured surface winds had velocities of about 3 to 13 kilometers per hour (2 to 8 miles per hour).ΓÇó A significant amount of sunlight reaches the surface.ΓÇó The surface rocks vary in radioactivity and have compositions resembling those of granite and basalt.* The 1978 Pioneer Venus mission included both atmospheric probes and an orbiting spacecraft. Among the results wereΓÇó The atmosphere was found to circulate in large planetwide systems, much simpler than the circulation patterns on the Earth.ΓÇó A collar of polar clouds was discovered, which may be part of a large atmospheric circulation vortex.ΓÇó At least four distinct cloud and haze layers were found at different altitudes.ΓÇó The haze layers contain small aerosol particles, perhaps sulfuric acid droplets.ΓÇó Accurate measurements of the atmospheric composition showed that it was about 96 percent carbon dioxide, 4 percent nitrogen, with small amounts of water, oxygen, and sulfur compounds. Rare gases such as argon and neon detected in the atmosphere suggest that Venus is richer in volatile elements than the Earth or Mars.ΓÇó The surface of Venus was found to be generally smooth, much less irregular than that of the Earth.ΓÇó Radar measurements from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and from ground-based observatories revealed the presence of two broad plateaus as well as apparent volcanic structures, craters, and canyons.*Lightning and thunder are present on Venus, according to results from the Venera 11 and 12 1anders in 1978.(The following is from "The Solar System" NASA/ASEP, 1989, p. 3.)* Venus is the Roman goddess of love and beauty.* This is the second planet from the Sun.* Venus is covered by clouds.* These clouds move three times faster than hurricane winds.* These clouds move east and west.* Venus' surface temperature is 900┬░ F.* The atmospheric pressure of Venus is 97 times that of Earth.* Venus' upper clouds contain sulfuric acid.* Because Venus rotates "backward," the Sun rises in the West.* Venus' orbit is near circular.* There is evidence of two major activity volcanic areas on Venus' surface.* The concentration of lightning over the volcanic regions suggests frequent volcanic activity.* Venus has nickel-iron core.* No magnetic field is found on Venus.* Venus circles the Sun every 224.7 Earth days.* One Venus day would equal 243 Earth days.* Venus' gravity is .91 of Earth's gravity.* The diameter of Venus is 7,502 miles.* Venus probably had seas at one time.* There have been 17 space missions to VenusΓÇö12 Russian and 5 American. </text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) MercuryObtaining the first close-up views of Mercury was the primary objective of the Mariner 10 spacecraft, launched on November 3, 1973, from Kennedy Space Center in Florida. After a journey of nearly five months, including a flyby of Venus, the spacecraft passed within 703 kilometers (437 miles) of the solar system's innermost planet on March 29, 1974.Until Mariner 10, little was known about Mercury. Even the best telescopic views from Earth showed Mercury as an indistinct object lacking any surface detail. The planet is so close to the Sun that it is usually lost in solar glare. When the planet is visible on Earth's horizon just after sunset or before dawn, it is obscured by the haze and dust in our atmosphere. Only radar telescopes gave any hint of Mercury's surface conditions prior to the voyage of Mariner 10.The photographs Mariner 10 radioed back to Earth revealed an ancient, heavily cratered surface, closely resembling our own Moon. The pictures also showed huge cliffs crisscrossing the planet. These apparently were created when Mercury's interior cooled and shrank, buckling the planet's crust. The cliffs are as high as 3 kilometers (2 miles) and as long as 500 kilometers (310 miles).Instruments on Mariner 10 discovered that Mercury has a weak magnetic field and a trace of atmosphereΓÇöa trillionth the density of Earth's atmosphere and composed chiefly of argon, neon and helium. When the planet's orbit takes it closest to the Sun, surface temperatures range from 467 degrees Celsius (872 degrees Fahrenheit) on Mercury's sunlit side to -183 degrees Celsius (-298 degrees Fahrenheit) on the dark side. This range in surface temperatureΓÇö650 degrees Celsius (1,170 degrees Fahrenheit) ΓÇöis the largest for a single body in the solar system. Mercury literally bakes and freezes at the same time.Days and nights are long on Mercury. The combination of a slow rotation relative to the stars (59 Earth days) and a rapid revolution around the Sun (88 Earth days) means that one Mercury solar day takes 176 Earth days or two Mercury yearsΓÇöthe time it takes the innermost planet to complete two orbits around the Sun!Mercury appears to have a crust of light silicate rock like that of Earth. Scientists believe Mercury has a heavy iron rich core making up slightly less than half of its volume. That would make Mercury's core larger, proportionally, than the Moon's core or those of any of the planets.After the initial Mercury encounter, Mariner 10 made two additional flybysΓÇöon September 21, 1974, and March 16, 1975ΓÇöbefore control gas used to orient the spacecraft was exhausted and the mission was concluded. Each flyby took place at the same local Mercury time when the identical half of the planet was illuminated; as a result, we stlll have not seen one-half of the planet's surface.</text>
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<text>(Bill Yenne, "The Atlas of the Solar System," Brompton Books Corp., Greenwich, 1987, p. 23.)* Johann Hieronymus Schroeter was the first to observe the planet Mercury and record detailed drawings of Mercury's surface features. Schroeter lived from 1745 to 1816. Unfortunately, his sketches were not very accurate.* Streaks similar to the so-called "Martian Canals" were also seen on Mercury by Schiaparellit and Percival Lowell (1855-1916). * An astronomer by the name of Eugenios Antoniadi (1870-1944) charted the surface of Mercury in great detail. His maps were used for almost 50 years. He used one of the stronger telescopes of his time and found the canals to be optical illusions.* Mariner 10 provided a close look at Mercury which redrew earlier telescope charts and maps.</text>
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<text>(Bevan M. French and Stephen P. Maran, eds., "A Meeting with the Universe," NASA EP-177, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.) * Mercury Ground-based radar measurements determined (1965) that the rotation period is 59 days, not 88 days as had long been believed.* Mariner 10 made the first spacecraft flyby of Mercury in 1974 (in fact, it flew past Mercury three times), and obtained several thousand photographs.* Among the results of the Mariner 10 investigations were the following:ΓÇó The mass of Mercury was accurately determined.ΓÇó Any residual atmosphere has less than a million- billionths the pressure of the Earth's atmosphere at sea level. However, a trace of helium, perhaps derived by outgassing from Mercury's interior, was found.ΓÇó It was discovered that Mercury has an internal magnetic field, similar to but weaker than that of Earth.ΓÇó Mercury's surface is heavily cratered and resembles that of the Moon.ΓÇó A huge circular impact basin (Mare Caloris), about 1300 kilometers (810 miles) in diameter, was discovered.ΓÇó A planetary feature unique to Mercury was found, consisting of long scarps, or cliffs, that apparently were produced by compression in a major shrinkage of the planet.ΓÇó Flat plains, perhaps lava flows, were found.ΓÇó Mercury was found to be closer to a perfect sphere than is the Earth.(The following is from "The Solar System" NASA/ASEP, 1989, p. 2.)* Mercury is the Roman gods' messenger.* Mercury is the innermost of the planets.* Mercury resembles the Earth's moon.* This planet has no moon.* Mercury's day equals 3 Earth months.* Mercury's gravity is about one-third of the Earth's gravity.* Mercury's diameter is 3,025 miles.* Mercury travels around the Sun every 88 Earth days.* Mercury consists of virtually no atmosphere.* Mercury has a weak magnetic field and a trace of atmosphere (one-trillionth the density of the Earth and composed chiefly of argon, neon and helium).* Mercury's orbit is more elliptical than any other planet except Pluto.* Mercury's temperature is 950┬░ F, sunlit side; 210┬░ F, dark side.* Mercury has a crust of light silicate rock.* Mercury's iron core is about the size of the Earth's moon.* In March 1974, Mariner 10 gave us the first close-up photographs of Mercury's surface</text>
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<text> (NASA, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, "Our Solar System at a Glance," NASA Information Summaries, PMS 010-A (JPL), June 1991.) The SunA discussion of the objects in the solar system must start with the Sun. The Sun dwarfs the other bodies, representing approximately 99.86 percent of all the mass in the solar system; all of the planets, moons, asteroids, comets, dust and gas add up to only about 0.14 percent. This 0.14 percent represents the material left over from the Sun's formation. One hundred and nine Earths would be required to fit across the Sun's disk, and its interior could hold over 1.3 million Earths.As a star, the Sun generates energy by the process of fusion. The temperature at the Sun's core is 15 million degrees Celsius (27 million degrees Fahrenheit), and the pressure there is 340 billion times Earth's air pressure at sea level. The Sun's surface temperature of 5,500 degrees Celsius (10,000 degrees Fahrenheit) seems almost chilly compared to its core temperature! At the solar core, hydrogen can fuse into helium, producing energy. The Sun also produces a strong magnetic field and streams of charged particles, the field and streams extending far beyond the planets.The Sun appears to have been active for 4.6 billion years and has enough fuel for another five billion years or so. At the end of its life, the Sun will start to fuse helium into heavier elements and begin to swell up, ultimately growing so large that it will swallow Earth. After a billion years as a "red giant," it will suddenly collapse into a "white dwarf"ΓÇöthe final end product of a star like ours. It may take a trillion years to cool off completely.Many spacecraft have explored the Sun's environment, but none have gotten any closer to its surface than approximately two-thirds of the distance from Earth to the Sun. Pioneers 5-11, the Pioneer Venus Orbiter, Voyagers 1 and 2 and other spacecraft have all sampled the solar environment. The Ulysses spacecraft, launched on October 6, 1990, is a joint solar mission of NASA and the European Space Agency. After using Jupiter's gravity to change its trajectory, Ulysses will fly over the Sun's polar regions during 1994 and 1995 and will perform a wide range of studies using nine on-board scientific instruments.We are fortunate that the Sun is exactly the way it is. If it were different in almost any way, life would almost certainly never have developed on Earth.</text>
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<text>(Bevan M. French and Stephen P. Maran, eds., "A Meeting with the Universe," NASA EP-177, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981.) The Sun * The solar ultraviolet spectrum has been mapped and studied, first with sounding rockets in 1946 and later with the Orbiting Solar Observatories (OSO satellites).* With radio telescopes, it was found that radio bursts of many kinds are emitted by the Sun.* Ground-based telescopes discovered "supergranulation," the existence on the Sun of convection cells with typical sizes of 30,000 kilometers (19,000 miles).* Sounding rocket instruments discovered that solar soft (lower energy) X-rays are produced primarily by active regions.* OSO instruments revealed that bursts of hard (higher energy) X-rays accompany solar flares.* Sounding rocket observations unexpectedly detected neutral hydrogen emission from the solar corona, allowing astronomers to measure the temperature of the coronal hydrogen and to infer the speed of the solar wind moving out through the corona.* Ground-based telescopes show that the five-minute oscillations of the Sun are composed of superposed oscillation modes.* An OSO instrument discovered gamma ray emission lines, indicating that nuclear reactions sometimes occur in solar flares.* Observations from Skylab revealed that:ΓÇó The corona consists largely of arcades of magnetic-field arches.ΓÇó The basic structure of a solar flare is a magnetic arch or loop.ΓÇó Coronal holes do not exhibit the differential rotation which characterizes the solar photosphere, but rotate as though they were solid objects.ΓÇó The top of a flare loop is hottest, and its foot points are relatively cool.ΓÇó There are numerous small regions of emerging magnetic flux, which appear as bright points on the Sun in soft X-rays, with lifetimes of three to six hours.* Observations from OSO-7 and Skylab showedthat large "solar bubbles" or coronal transients pass outward through the corona after flares and prominences erupt.* OSO-8 measurements showed that, contrary to earlier expectations, acoustic waves do not carry sufficient energy to heat the corona. Perhaps the dissipation of magnetic energy is responsible for the high temperature of the corona.* Sounding rocket observations showed that jets, perhaps related to the spicules seen with ground-based telescopes, are ejected from the solar surface and reach speeds of 300 kilometers per second (190 miles per second).* Combining the results of observations from the Solar Maximun Mission (SMM) satellite and ground-based radio telescopes, it was found that hard X-rays are emitted at the foot points of flare loops, while microwave radio bursts are emitted at the tops of the loops.* An instrument on SMM discovered that the total light of the Sun varies from week to week by amounts of plus or minus 0.05 percent and that there are some larger variations as well.* SMM observations revealed how solar flares occur after hot plasma fills preexisting magnetic loops, which then explode. Heliospheric Physics* Ground-based measurements found that there is an inverse correlation between solar activity and cosmic ray intensity.* Interplanetary spacecraft, including the Mariners, detected and measured the solar wind.* An abundance of such atoms as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and iron have been measured in the solar wind.* Enhanced amounts of the isotope helium-3 were discovered in the matter ejected from solar flares and in high-speed streams of the solar wind.* Waves and discontinuities were discovered in the solar wind.* The interplanetary magnetic field was found to possess sector structure that rotates with the Sun.* Skylab observations identified coronal holes as the sources of high-speed wind streams and showed that coronal holes are the cause of recurrent geomagnetic storms on Earth.* Correlation of the interplanetary magnetic field with the magnetic field at the solar surface was accomplished.* A warped-disk model for the magnetic neutral sheet in interplanetary space has been developed.* Pioneer 10 has established that the heliosphere extends out beyond the orbit of Uranus.* The International Sun-Earth Explorer(ISEE) mission discovered electron bursts that originate in the outer corona and traced the paths of the bursts outward through the corona, along the spiral magnetic field. Magnetospheric Physics * The Van Allen radiation belts of the Earth were discovered by Explorer 1.* The magnetopause, or boundary between the solar wind and the Earth's magnetosphere, was located at a distance of about 20 Earth radii toward the Sun.* The Earth's "bow shock," a collisionless shock wave, was found to be slightly closer to the Sun than the magnetopause and separated from the latter by a region called the magnetosheath.* The Earth's magnetic tail (magnetotail) was found to extend far into space, beyond the distance of the Moon.* It was determined that significant numbers of charged particles enter the magnetosphere directly from the solar wind.* Evidence was found for a magnetic field reconnection process in the magnetotail, which accelerates charged particles to high velocities.* Displays of the aurora on Earth were found to originate from disturbances in the magnetotail.* Low-frequency waves were detected in the magnetosphere.* It was found that electric currents move along the magnetic field lines above the Earth's polar regions. These currents are maintained by electric fields aligned along the magnetic field, which once were thought to be impossible. Ionospheric Physics* Rocket-borne ion mass spectrometers showed that molecular ions predominate among the charged particles in the lower layers of the Earth's ionosphere, at altitudes of 90 to 200 kilometers (about 55 to 125 miles).* Rocket observations showed that the charged particles in the upper layers of the ionosphere, at altitudes of 200 to 800 kilometers (125 to 500 miles), are mainly ions of oxygen.* Metallic ions derived from meteorites were discovered in the E region of the ionosphere.* Measurements showed that the temperatures of the ionospheric electrons are higher than those of the ions; the ion temperatures are higher than those of the neutral gas.* Observations by Explorer satellites showed a division between the polar ionosphere and the ionosphere over lower latitudes of the Earth.* Plasma instabilities were artificially excited for study in the ionosphere by means of radio-wave injection.* Extensive satellite measurements solved the long-standing problem of why there are more electrons in the winter ionosphere than in the summer ionosphere at the low-to-medium activity phases of the sunspot cycle. (More electrons would be expected in the summer, since the Sun is then more nearly overhead.) Systematic measurements were taken by the atmosphere explorers. This allowed variations associated with satellite height, latitude, time of day, and season to be statistically separated. Three factors were found to contribute to the winter anomaly. First, there is an increase in neutral atomic oxygen due to atmospheric circulation and dynamics; this results in an increase in electron production due to more ionization by the Sun. Second, the temperature of the neutral nitrogen is lower in winter, so that the existing ionization is removed more slowly by a chemical recombination process. Third, there is a more rapid production of ionization in winter due to increased quenching of an intermediate excited state of atomic oxygen.* Convective bubbles that cause the equatorial "spread-F" effect were detected. These involve electron density variations by factors of 100 within scale sizes of approximately 10 meters (33 feet). The bubbles move at speeds of hundreds of meters per second.* A "polar wind" of ions that are convected rapidly upward from the ionosphere above polar regions was discovered. The ions either travel out along magnetic field lines to interplanetary space or are transported into the magnetotail.(The following is from "The Solar System" NASA/ASEP, 1989, p. 1.)* Apollo, the Sun god, brings life-giving heat and light.* The egg of creation is the symbol for the Sun.* The Sun formed from a huge cloud of gas 5 billion years ago.* The Sun (an average star) is the star nearest the Earth.* In ancient times, people thought the Sun was a perfect sphere or celestial fire created by the gods.* The Sun's energy is nuclear reaction. *The Sun shapes our life on Earth (the weather and the climate). *The Sun consists mainly of hydrogen and helium. * The diameter of the Sun is 864,000 miles. One million Earths could fit inside the Sun. * The Sun contains 99 percent of our solar system's total mass. * The Sun spins on its axis from left to right. * The Earth receives only one-billionth of the total energy output of the Sun. * Energy we receive from the Sun was formed 50 million years ago.* The Sun consists of three layers: the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona.* "Sun-spots" are giant magnetic fields that cool areas of the Sun. * The temperature of the Sun's core is 15 million degrees Kelvin. * The Sun will burn for another 5 billion years.</text>
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